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NEET Biology Diversity Of Life Five Kingdoms Of Life And Biological Classification

Kingdom Classification Definition

• Life can be defined as a unique, complex, organization of molecules that acquire and use energy for metabolism, expressing itself through chemical reactions which lead to growth. development, responsiveness, adaptation, and reproduction.
• Aggregation, interaction, equilibrium, and change regulate all types of organizations.
• The cellular organization of the body is the defining feature of all living organisms.
• A group of cells meant to perform a specific function is called tissue.
• A biological organization starts with submicroscopic molecular levels, passes through the microscopic cellular level and microscopic or macroscopic organismal level, and ends in ecosystems and biosphere.
• Reproduction is a characteristic feature of all living organisms and ensures the perpetuation of the species.
• In living organisms, thermal energy is produced during energetic reactions. The ectothermic animals such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, and plants.
• Mammals, birds, and a few fishes instead of losing thermal energy retain it. They are termed endothermic.
• Living organisms maintain their internal organization stable irrespective of changes in the environment. It is termed homeostasis.
• Living systems are open systems.
• Metabolism is the total of all chemical reactions taking place in the body.
• Metabolic reactions are of two types i.e. building up reactions termed anabolism and breaking down reactions as catabolism.
• Consciousness is the defining property of living organisms.
• There are innumerable plants, animals, bacteria, and viruses. Each one differs from the other.
• Biological classification is the art of identifying distinctions among organisms and placing them into groups.
• There is a great diversity among living organisms termed biodiversity. Biologists estimate that about 1.7 million kinds of organisms are living today on the planet Earth. Out of these 1.2 million are animals and 0.5 are million plants.
• About 15000 species are discovered every year.
• Underwater reefs and tropical rainforests possess innumerable undiscovered species.
• About 50-100 times more species are already extinct.
• Total living organisms vary between 5-30 million.
• Out of a million of the known species of animals and insects forms the largest group with 750000 species.
• Many species appeared and disappeared during the 3.5 billion years of long history of life.
• Over half a million species are unexplored.
• Taxonomy is the branch of biology concerned with the relationship between organisms and their classification.
• Taxon. It is any level of grouping of organisms e.g. mammals, roses, poppies.
• Category. Rank in Linnaean hierarchy eg. family Rosaceae, order Rosales class Dicotyledoneae.
• Species is the basic unit of classification.
• Each species is given a unique Iatin binomial, name consisting of genus name and species epithet.
• Species are grouped into progressively more inclusive higher categories.
• The main levels in the taxonomic hierarchy, from most to least inclusive are Kingdom, Phylum/Division, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species.
• Intermediate categories arc super or subdivision. The tribe is a subdivision of a family.
• The binomial system of nomenclature was first used by Linnaeus.
• Species change slowly over generations.

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Five Kingdom Classification NEET Notes

NEET Biology Five Kingdoms Artificial Natural Lmiylocknktic Systems Of Classification

• Systems of classification may be artificial, natural, or pltylogcnclic.
• Artificial System. It is more or less an arbitrary system with only a few characters of the organisms considered, like the grouping of plants into herbs, shrubs, and trees or the sexual system of Linnaeus based on several stamens and styles.
• These characters do not throw any light on the affinities or inter-relationships of plants. Hence closely related plants are placed wide apart.
• The artificial system hence is of help only in finding the name of a plant.
• The best-known artificial system is Linnaeus (1735).
• Natural System. It is a system based on considerations of several important characters and classification is done according to the related characters taking the affinities and inter-relationship into account.
• The system hence reflects the situation thought to exist under natural conditions.
• Some of the Natural systems of classification are of John Ray and Bentham and Hooker.
• Phylogenetic System. The plants are classified according to their evolutionary and genetic affinities.
• However, the fossil record available at present is not sufficient and hence the plants are classified partly on a natural basis and partly on a phylogenetic basis.

Different Classification Systems For Living World

• Takhtajan (1967) in his ‘Flora of Armenia’ has given a phylogenetic classification based on the classification of Bentham and Hooker. His classification is of considerable merit since he has made use of the maximum data available through Morphology, Cytology, Palynology, Anatomy, Embryology, Cytogenetics, Biochemistry, and Palaeobotany in the construction of taxa of various ranks.
• Some of the phylogenetic systems are those of Hutchinson, Tippo, and Takhtajan.

NEET Biology Five Kingdoms Modern Trends In Taxonomy

• Taxonomy study aimed at producing a hierarchical system of classification of organisms which Ivst reflects the totality of similarities and differences.
• Systematic It is the system of classification based on evolution and other relationships 01 systematise is the science of the diversity of organisms.
• New systematic taxonomy has become a very interesting subject knitting together all kinds of relationships between various plants.
• Characteristics of “New Systemnllcs.”

New Systematicy. It was introduced by Sir Julian 1luxley ( 1940) to overcome the failures of classical systematicy. It is characterized as follows:

The strictly morphological definition of species has been supplanted by a biological definition incorporating ecology, geography, genetics, cytology, physiology, biochemistry, and behavior.

• The significance of the species itself diminishes since the majority of research focuses on subdivisions, including subspecies and populations.
• Species are considered a dynamic entity rather than the static entity of classical systematics.
• Gross Morphology. Morphological categorization offers the most effective foundation for a comprehensive classification due to the simplicity of its characteristics.
• Anatomical. Tippo has delineated the evolutionary pathways of stem structure, specifically concerning the secondary xylem of angiosperms. Stem anatomy verifies that Magnoliales are the most basic angiosperms.
• Palynological. Woodhouse has demonstrated that one-furrowed pollen grains are primitive and present in Gymnosperms and early angiosperm groups such as Magnoliaceae.
• Pollen morphology of primordial angiosperms indicates the existence of two principal dicot lineages: Magnolian (monocolpate) and Ranalian (tricolpate).
• Cytotaxonomy. Cytotaxonomy refers to the classification of plants and animals based on their cytological structure.
• Biochemical Systematics. The categorization of flora and fauna according to biochemical traits is termed biochemical systematics.
• Alpha Taxoalynology, biochemistry, physiology, etc. (P taxonomy of Turrill).

Turill gave taxonomy in three parts:

NEET Biology Five Kingdoms Binomial Nomenclature

Carl Linnaeus (1758) was the pioneer in the introduction of scientific nomenclature. His nomenclature for animals and plants assigns each a binomial designation.

• The first designation is referred to as the generic name, while the second denotes the species name.
• Generic names may be assigned to multiple animals or plants based on their similarities, whereas a unique and specialized name is designated for each species.
• The specialized name may denote certain qualities such as habitat, behavior, morphology, dimensions, and coloration. Rana tigrina is the designation for a frog species.
• Rana is a generic designation, whereas tigrina refers to a specific species. Tautonyms. If both the generic and particular names are identical, they are referred to as autonyms, a term not widely recognized by contemporary biologists.

Biological Classification NEET Study Material

Type Method Principle:

The application of names of taxa of the rank of family or Mow iv determined using nomenclatural types. The nomenclature type Is a taon with which the name of the taxon Is permanently associated. It is not necessarily the most typical or representative element of a taxon.

1. The holotype is the one specimen or another element (description/figure) designated by the author and nomendatuntl type.
2. Isotype. Duplicate of the holotype (other specimens collected at the same time)
3. Specimen or other element selected from the original material to serve as nomenclatural type when no holotype was designated at the time of publication or it is missing.
4. Neotypc. Specimen or other element selected to serve as nomenclatural type as long as all of the material, on which the name of the taxon was based, is missing.
5. Paratype. It is a specimen cited with the original description other than the holotype or isotype.
6. Syntype. Any ofthe two or more specimens cited by the author when there is no holotype.

Nomenclature

• Some rules of binomial nomenclature were first proposed by Casper & Bauhin in the book Pinax.
• Linnaeus-Karl von Lanne (1707) in Sweden at the age of 22 published a paper ‘Sexuality of Plants’.
• Linnaeus gave some rules of binomial nomenclature in the book Philosophia Botanica (1751), Species Plantarum (1753), and Systema Naturae (1758).

Rules of binomial nomenclature

• All organisms should have distinct and specific names.
• All names given before the 10th edition of Systema Naturae (1758) are discarded except seed plants for whom the date is 1/5/1753.
• If two names are given to the same organism by two different scientists then the name given first after 1/8/1758 will be accepted and the other one will be called as its synonym (by law or rule of priority), e.g. Albugo Candida is a valid name whereas, Cytopus Candida is a synonym.
• If the binomial name is to be printed it should be printed in Italics. If handwritten, genus and species should be underlined separately.
• The name will have two parts genus and species.

NEET Biology Five Kingdoms Classification

R. H Whittaker divided the living into five kingdoms based on the following criteria:

1. The complexity of cell structure, Pmkaryoiie or Eukaryotic.
2. Complexity of body structure (level of structural organization). Unicellular and multicellular.
3. Mode or nutrition. Autotropliy, heterotrophy (absorptive and digestive).

Geological role. clusters, carnivores, or decomposers. Whittaker’s Five Kingdoms arc :

• Moncra, Protista. Plantac, Fungi and Animalia
• Kingdom Monera. Moncrans arc prokaryotes. Bacteria, Blue-green algae.
• Kingdom Protista. Protists are unicellular eukaryotes that have widely diverse lifestyles.
• Protists form the precursors from which higher forms—Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia— arose on photosynthetic, assimilative, and ingestive lines. Mastigophores, Ciliates, Sarcodines, Spoaizoans, slime molds, diatoms.
• Kingdom Fungi. Fungi are eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms with assimilative nutrition. Rhizopus, Agaricus.
• Kingdom Plantae. Plantae includes eukaryotic multicellular, photosynthetic organisms.Grcen multicellular plants.
• Kingdom Animalia. Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular consumers characterized by ingestive nutrition. Non-chordates and chordates.

Important Contributors

• Carl. P Linnaeus. The Father of Taxonomy gave an artificial system of classification. He introduced Binomial nomenclature. He wrote “Systema Naturae”, “Species Plantarum” and “Philosophia Botanica” Genera Plantarum -4 Bentham & Hooker,
• John Ray. Introduced the term species. He wrote a book titled “Historia Generalis Plantarum”.
• Pliny the F.lder (28-79). Introduced the first system of artificial classification. He wrote a book titled “Historia Naturalis.”
• Aristotle was the first to classify organisms as “Aristoria Animalia”.
• Charaka. (An Indian) classified plants of medicinal value and wrote “Charaka Samhita”. He described 200 kinds of animals and 340 kinds of plants.
• Parasara (An Indian) described plants of medicinal value in his book “Vrikashayurveda”.
• J. K. Maheshwari described plants of Delhi in his book “Flora of Delhi”
• J. D. Hooker wrote “Flora of British India”
• Diocorides described plants in his hook “Mntcrla Mctllcn”
• Kmst Meyer gave the biological species concept based on reproductive Isolation Fuller and Tippo introduced partly natural and partly artificial systems of classification.
• J.I. Cuvier used the term phylum.
• R. If. Whittaker. Imposed five kingdom classification.
• Turrill (1938). He gave a-Taxonomy and P-Taxonomy.
• Turner wrote a book titled ‘Herbnll’
• Lindley wrote a book titled “The Vegetable Kingdom”.

Botanical gardens are sufficiently large tracts where plants of different types and different areas are grown for scientific and educational purposes.

NEET Ug Biological Classification Notes

One of the important herbaria in India are Central National Herbarium. Kolkata and Herbarium of FRI, Dehradun.

• Royal Botanical Garden, Kew, England extends over 250 acres of land. Botanical gardens keep records of local flora.
• There is a big Botanical Garden in Kolkata having the Great Banyan Tree.
• The herbarium is a collection of well-dried and nicely preserved plants that are correctly identified and arranged according to an approved system of classification.
• The herbarium serves as the reference material for modern taxonomical research and education.
• The collection of plants is the first step in the direction of making a herbarium.
• The collected plants are pressed immediately between sheets of newspapers or blotting papers to dry them. After drying the plant materials are mounted on her barium sheets.
• Herbaria can be classified into three categories:
  • National
  • Regional and
  • Local
• One of the important herbaria in India are Central National Herbarium. Kolkata and Herbarium of FRI, Dehradun.
• The term “wildlife” generally gives an impression of large and ferocious animals living in jungles or water bodies and may include lions, tigers, elephants, rhinoceros, crocodiles, and whales.
• But actually, wildlife refers to any type of living organism (plant or animal or microbes), in a natural habitat other than cultivated plants and domesticated animals.
• Zoological Park (Zoo). It is an area where many kinds of living animals are kept so that people can look at them or study them.
• There are over 300 zoological parks in India.
• These are classified as large, medium, small, and mini based on the area, variety of animals exhibited, number of endangered species exhibited, and number of visitors visited per year.
• For the conservation of wildlife rare species of plants and animals have been categorised as endangered, vulnerable, and rare according to the degree of danger facing them.

• National parks, biosphere reserves, and sanctuaries will form the refuge for wild plants and animals in the years to come.
• Protected area. It is the area created for the protection, preservation, and propagation of the varied natural bounty.
• The government of India passed the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, under which national parks and sanctuaries could be created as protected areas.
• National park. It is an area that is strictly reserved for the betterment of wildlife and where activities such as forestry, and grazing cultivation are not permitted. There are 66 national parks in the country which are spread over an area of 33,988.14 sq. km. (Nearly 1% of total geographical area)
• Sanctuary. In a sanctuary, protection is given only to animal life. In such areas, private ownership is allowed. Harvesting timber, and collection of forest products are permitted so long as they do not interfere with the well-being of animal life.
• There are 368 sanctuaries spread over an area of 1,07,310,13 square kilometers (Nearly 3.2 percent of the total geographical area).  about 1000 pillar-like aerial roots which provide support to the canopy. It is about 100 feet in height and is supposed to be the largest living creature in the world houses. They are elegant metal structures covered with wire netting.
• A large number of pretty creepers are grown over the structures whose foliage provides the shade for the growth of rare palms, ferns, and other shade-loving plants. Over forty species of palms are grown in¬ including the rare branching palm Hyphaene thcbaiai.
• Museums perform the following functions: Acquisition of materials,
• Recording of materials preservation of materials reearch exhibition of materials education. Key. A scheme for the identification of plants and animals.
• Taxonomic keys are based on contrasting characters. Generally, keys are of two types i.e. Yorked or Indented key and Bracketed key.

NEET Biology Five Kingdoms Quanta To Memory

• Unique features of living organisms are growth, reproduction, ability to sense the environment and respond.
• Metabolism, the ability to self-replicate, self-organize, and interact are other features of life.
• Photoperiods affect reproduction in seasonal breeders in both plants and animals.
• Biology is regarded as the story of life and evolution of living organisms on earth.
• There are about 1.7 to 1.8 million species that are known to be described. It refers to biodiversity. Founder of Taxonomy/Father of Biology/Father of Zoology—Aristotle.
• Father of Botany—Theophrastus.
• In the Biological Taxonomic hierarchy from species to kingdom, the number of common characteristics goes on decreasing.
• Species is the basic unit of taxonomy.
• Species include interbreeding, reproductively isolated organisms. But the idea of species is discarded on the basis that species are nothing but man-made, which is wrong. Species are not fixed as the process of evolution is continuous and natural selection always works on organisms.
• The fossil study shows that earlier simpler organisms gradually evolved into complex ones. The earliest fossils, about 3.1 billion years old, resemble the existing bacteria.

Classification Of Mango

• Kingdom: Plantae
• Division: Spennatophyta (Erabryophyta Siphonogama)
• Subdivision: Angiospemiae
• Class: Dicotylcdoneae
• Order: Sapindales
• Family: Anacordiaccae
• Germs: Mangifcra
• Species: Indica

Classification Of Tiger

• Kingdom: Animalia
• Division: Chordata
• Subdivision: Vertebrata
• Class: Mammalia
• Order: Carnivora
• Family: Felidae
• Germs: Panthera
• Species: Tigris

Suffixes. According to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, the names of different ranks must end in the following standard endings (suffixes)—

• Rank— Suffix
• Division — phyla (Example; Bryophyta)
• Subdivision — physical (Example; Pterophytina)
• Class — apsidal (Example; Lycopsida)
• or ae (Example; Magnolioatae)
• or phytate (Example; Chlorophyceae)
• Order—ales (Example; Volvocales)
• Suborder— lineae (Example; Malvineae)
• Family— Poaceae (Example; Malvaceae)
• Subfamily— ideas (Example; Mimosoideae)
• Trade-in

Five Kingdom Classification NEET Questions

Biological classification is not rigid and is subject to modification as more and more is learned about organisms.

• The phylogenetic classification reflects the evolutionary relationships of organisms. The organisms related to evolution are usually similar morphologically also.
• Water lily has 81 Dutch names, 44 French names, and 15 English names.
• Atharva Veda mentions 108 plants with powers to heal wounds, skin grafting, hair growth, increased milk yield, bone setting, etc.
• The terms prokaryotes and eukaryotes were coined by Folt.
• S. Prusiner was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1997 for his contribution to infectious agents called Prions which are made up of proteins without any nucleic acids. Numerical taxonomy is the same as phenetic taxonomy.
• It emerged in 1950. It employs numerical methods for the evaluation of similarities and differences between species.
• In this method as many characteristics as possible are used for their comparisons, without extra emphasis being given to anyone.
• Such a comparison is possible due to the availability of sophisticated machines and computers.
• This system is considered better because it uses a large number of comparable characters. A family tree based on numerical phenetic taxonomy is called a dendrogram.

NEET Biology Five Kingdoms Classification Questions From Competitive Examinations

Question 1. Phenolic classification is based on:

1. Sexual characters
2. The ancestral lineage of existing organisms
3. Observable characteristics of existing organisms
4. Dendrograms based on dna characteristics.

Answer: 3. Observable characteristics of existing organisms

Question 2. In which kingdom would you classify the archaea and nitrogen-fixing organisms in the five-kingdom system of classification

1. Monera
2. Plantae
3. Fungi
4. Protista.

Answer: 1. Monera

Question 3. Species are considered as:

1. Real units of classification devised by taxonomists
2. The real basic unit of classification
3. The lowest unit of classification
4. The artificial concept of the human mind cannot be defined in absolute terms.

Answer: 2. The real basic unit of classification

Question 4. Plants reproducing by spores such as mosses and ferns are grouped under the general term:

1. Thallophytes
2. Cryptogams
3. Bryophytes
4. Sporophytes.

Answer: 2. Cryptogams

Question 5. Which pair of examples will correctly represent the grouping of Spermatophyta according to one of the schemes of classifying plants?

1. Ginkgo, Pisum
2. Acacia, sugarcane
3. Pinus, cycas
4. Rhizopus, triticum.

Answer: 1. Ginkgo, Pisum

Question 6. From the point of tiger reserve and state which one of the following groups is correct?

1. Corbett-Madhya Pradesh
2. Palamu-Orissa
3. Manas-Assam
4. Bandipur-tamil nadu.

Answer: 3. Manas-Assam

Question 7. Who wrote ‘species plantarum’ and provided a basis for the classification of plants:

1. Av. Leeuwenhoek
2. Charles Darwin
3. Carl Linnaeus
4. Robert Hooke.

Answer: 3. Carl Linnaeus

Question 8. Which of the following animals is protected in Kaziranga sanctuary in Assam?

1. Indian lion
2. Indian bison
3. Indian elephant
4. Indian rhinoceros

Answer: 4. Indian rhinoceros

Biological Classification NEET Mcqs

Question 9. The species whose number has been reduced considerably and are on the verge of extinction, are called:

1. Vulnerable
2. Rare
3. Endangered
4. Threatened.

Answer: 1. Vulnerable

Question 10. Which one of the following is a pair of endangered species?

1. Garden lizard and Mexican poppy
2. Rhesus monkey and sal tree
3. Indian peacock and carrot grass
4. Hombill and indian aconite.

Answer: 4. Hombill and Indian aconite.

Question 11. The Bengal tiger becomes extinct:

1. Hyaenas and wolves will become scarce
2. Its gene pool will be lost forever
3. The wild areas will be safe for man and domestic animals
4. The populations of beautiful animals like deer will get stabilized.

Answer: 2. Its gene pool will be lost forever

Question 12. Which of the following is not true for a species?

1. Members of a species can interbreed
2. Variations occur among members of a species
3. Each species is reproductively isolated from every other species
4. Gene flow does not occur between the populations of a species.

Answer: 4. Gene flow does not occur between the populations of a species.

Question 13. One of the most important functions of botanical gardens is that:

1. One can observe tropical plants there
2. They allow ex-situ conservation of germplasm
3. They provide the natural habitat for wildlife
4. They provide a beautiful area for recreation.

Answer: 2. They allow ex-situ conservation of germplasm

Question 14. The outer protein covering of the virus is :

1. Virion
2. Viroid
3. Capsid
4. Coat.

Answer: 3. Capsid

Question 15. The modem system of classification classified the organisms into kingdoms.

1. One
2. Two
3. Four
4. Five.

Answer: 4. Five.

Question 16. In the kingdom system of classification of r.h. Whittaker, how many kingdoms contain eukaryotes?

1. Four kingdoms
2. One kingdom
3. Two kingdoms
4. Three kingdoms.

Answer: 1. Four kingdoms

Question 17. Englar and Prantle published a phylogenetic system in the monograph.

1. Die naturlichen pflanzen familien
2. Historia planlanim
3. Species planlanim
4. Genera planlanim.

Answer: 4. Genera planlanim.

Question 18. Two species are ntoiphologicully almost do not, such species are called:

1. Evolutional species
2. Sibling species
3. Polyty pic species
4. Sympatric species

Answer: 4. Sympatric species

Question 19. Reproduction can occur within members of a:

1. Species
2. Genus
3. Order
4. Family

Answer: 1. Species

Question 20. Binomial nomenclature was given by:

1. Lamarck
2. Linnaeus
3. Darwin
4. Tijo and Levan.

Answer: 2. Linnaeus

Biological Classification NEET Mcqs

Question 21. Classification based on chromosome number is called :

1. Numerotaxonomy
2. Cytotaxonomy
3. Chemotaxonomy
4. None of these.

Answer: 2. Cytotaxonomy

Question 22. Select the false statement:

1. Scientists who study and contribute to the classification of organisms are known as systematists
2. Carolus Linnaeus developed the first scientific system of naming species
3. A five-kingdom arrangement of organisms was introduced by R.H. Whittaker
4. A genus is a group of species that are related and have fewer characters in common as compared to species
5. Phycomycetes are called club fungi because of a club-shaped end of mycelium known as basidium

Answer: 1. Scientists who study and contribute to the classification of organisms are known as systematists

Question 23. Which of the following is not correctly matched?

1. Chlamydomonas – unicellular flagellated
2. Laminaria – flattened leaf-like thallus
3. Chlorella- filamentous non-flagellated
4. Spirogyra- filamentous structure
5. Volvox- colonial form non-flagellated

Answer: 5.  Volvox- colonial form non-flagellated

Question 24. Which of these is mismatched?

1. Phaneros- visible
2. Kryptos- concealed
3. Gymno- naked
4. Bryon- liverworts
5. Trachea- windpipe.

Answer: 5. Bryon- liverworts

Question 25. In the classification of plants, the term cladistics refers to the:

1. Phylogenetic classification
2. Sexual classification
3. Classification
4. Classification
5. Binomial classification,

Answer: 1. Phylogenetic classification

Question 26. Identify from the following, the only taxonomic category that has a real existence.

1. Genus
2. Species
3. Phylum
4. Kingdom.

Answer: 2. Species

Question 27. Icbn stands for:

1. International code of botanical nomenclature
2. International congress of biological names
3. Indian code of botanical nomenclature
4. Indian congress of biological names.

Answer: 1. International code of botanical nomenclature

Question 28. Two plants can be conclusively said to belong to the same species if they:

1. Have more than 90 percent similar genes
2. Iook similar and possess identical secondary metabolites.
3. Have the same number of chromosomes
4. Can reproduce freely with each other and form seeds.

Answer: 4. Can reproduce freely with each other and form seeds.

Question 29. New systematics introduced by Sir Julian Huxley is also called:

1. Phenetics
2. Cladistics
3. Biosystematics
4. Numerical taxonomy
5. Chemotaxonomy.

Answer: 3. Biosystematics

NEET Biology Five Kingdoms Classification Summary

Question 30. Which one of the following animals is correctly matched with its particular taxonomic category?

1. Tiger – Tigris, the species
2. Cuttlefish – Mollusca, a class
3. Humans – primates, the family
4. Housefly – Musca, an order.

Answer: 1. Tiger – Tigris, the species

Question 31. Which one of the following is not a correct statement?

1. Botanical gardens have a collection of living plants for reference.
2. A museum has a collection of photographs of plants and animals
3. The key is taxonomic aid for the identification of specimens.
4. Herbarium houses dried pressed and preserved plant specimens.

Answer: 2. A museum has a collection of photographs of plants and animals

NEET Biology Classification Of Taxonomy Of Angiosperms

Features of Flowering Plants (Angiosperms. (Gk. cmgion-vessel. sperma-sned).

Angiospermae is a large category of flowering plants characterized by seed formation within fruits and the arrangement of sporophylls into flowers.

They exhibit the following traits:

Sporophylls amalgamate to form flowers.

• A microsporophyll, or stamen, consists of a filament and an anther. A megasporophyll (carpel) is intricately folded and partially sterilized to produce a stigma, style, and ovary containing ovules.
• Double fertilization consistently takes place. Endosperm is produced via triple fusion and is generally triploid.
• The fertilized ovule matures into seeds that are enclosed within fruits. A fruit is, by definition, a mature ovary that facilitates the protection and dispersal of seeds.
• Xylem consists of vessels, whereas phloem is composed of sieve tubes and partner cells.
• Secondary growth occurs in the stems and roots of dicotyledons.
• Angiosperms exhibit the distinctive plant alternation of generations. The dominating phase is the sporophyte, whereas the gametophyte is markedly reduced in size and wholly dependent on the sporophyte for nourishment.
• This condition is not limited to angiosperms but is found in all seed plants.

Taxonomy Of Angiosperms NEET Notes

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NEET Biology Taxonomy Of Angiosperms Important Characters Of Selected Families

Characteristics of Solanaceae

1. Aerial parts are hairy.
2. Stem usually with collateral vascular bundles.
3. Leaves alternate becoming opposite in the floral region.
4. Flower actinomorphic, hypogynous.
5. Sepals 5, gamosepalous.
6. Petals 5, gamopetalous.
7. Stamens 5, polyandrous antipetalous and epipetalous.
8. Gynaecium, bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior, ovary obliquely placed.
9. Axile placentation with swollen placenta
10. Fruit Berry or Capsule.
11. Important Genera. Solatium tuberosum (Potato), Capsicum annum (Chillies) Nicotiana tobacum (tobacco), Cestrum noctumum (night queen), Datura.

Angiosperm Taxonomy NEET Study Material

The old names of some families have been changed new names are given below

1. Old Name – New Name
2. Cruciferae – Brasicaceae
3. Papilionoideae- Fabaceae
4. Umbelliferae- Apiacae
5. Compositae- Asteraceae
6. Labiatae- Lamiaceae
7. Gramineae- Poaceae
8. Palmae- Arecaceae
9. Caesalphiniaceae- Cassiaceae
10. Mimosoidae- Mimosaceae

The old family Leguminosae now includes three sub-families:

1. Mimosoideae,
2. Caesalpinioideae and
3. Papilionoideae.

These subfamilies have now been raised to the level of families are called:

1. Mimosaceae
2. Caesalpiniaceae and
3. Fabaceae.

Characteristics of Family Cruciferae

1. Mostly sulphur-smelling herbs.
2. Absence of flowers.
3. Hexacyclic flowers.
4. Calyx 4, free sepals arranged in two whorls of two each 2 + 2u’
5. Corolla 4, clawed petals, Cruciform, 4 x.
6. Androecium typically (6), tetradynamous lateral stamens arranged in two whorls, 2, shorter + 4 longer median.
7. Pollen grains with a reticulate exine.
8. Presence of green, dot-like nectaries at the bases of stamens.
9. Gynaecium is typically bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior.
10. The ovary is bilocular owing to the formation of a false septum stretching between the two parietal placentae. The two carpels are placed transversely.
11. Fruit is typically a siliqua or silicula.
12. 
13. Important plants. Brassica campestris (Mustard), Raphanus sativus (Radish), Iberis amara (Candytuft) Brassica juncea (halon).

Characteristics of Family Leguminosae

1. Alternate, stipulate, pulvinate, and generally pinnately compound leaves.
2. Gamosepalous, persistent calyx with odd sepal or lobe anterior.
3. Polypetalous corolla generally with ascending or descending imbricate aestivation, sometimes valvate.
4. Monocarpellary gynaecium.
5. Ovary unilocular with marginal placenta along the ventral suture which is always posterior.
6. Fruit is a legume, sometimes a lomentum.
7. Sub-family Papilionatae. It is characterized by zygomorphic flowers, gamosepalous calyx, papilionaceous corolla, stamens usually 10, diadelphous, sometimes monadelphous, pollen grains simple, seeds without arterioles, leaves pinnate, digitate, trifoliate, sometimes simple.

Characteristics of Family Leguminosae

1. Alternate, stipulate, pulvinate, and generally pinnately compound leaves.
2. Gamosepalous, persistent calyx with odd sepal or lobe anterior.
3. Polypetalous corolla generally with ascending or descending imbricate aestivation, sometimes valvate.
4. Monocarpellary gynaecium.
5. Ovary unilocular with marginal placenta along the ventral suture which is always posterior.
6. Fruit is a legume, sometimes a lomentum.
7. Sub-family Papilionatae. It is characterized by zygomorphic flowers, gamosepalous calyx, papilionaceous corolla, stamens usually 10, diadelphous, sometimes monadelphous, pollen grains simple, seeds without arterioles, leaves pinnate, digitate, trifoliate, sometimes simple.

1. Important plants. Pisum sativum, Cicer arienum, Lupinus, Dalbergia sisoo, Arachis hypogea.
2. Sub-family Caesalpinoideae. Flowers irregular, calyx free or united, imbricate, corolla polypetalous, ascending imbricate in bud condition, stamens 10 or less, free rarely many, pollen grains simple, leaves usually pinnate, sometimes bipinnate, rarely simple.

1. Important plants. Cassiafistula, Buhinia and Tamarindus indica.
2. Sub-family Mimosoideae. Flowers regular, calyx gamosepalous, corolla gamopetalous, stamens 4—many, free or monadelphous, pollen grains compound, seeds marked with arterioles, leaves usually bipinnate.

Important plants. Acacia arabica, Acacia catechu, Mimosa pudica.

Taxonomy Of Angiosperms NEET Question Bank

Characteristics of Family Malvaceae

1. Younger parts are covered with stellate hairs and contain a lot of mucilage.
2. Leaves alternate, stipulate, palmately veined.
3. Presence of epicalyx.
4. Sepals and petals typically 5, stamens numerous, monadelphous, forming a staminal tube, epipetalous.
5. Twisted aestivation of the corolla.
6. Monothecous anthers and spiny (echinulate) pollen grains.
7. Schizocarpic, carcerulus fruit or a loculicidal capsule.

Important plants. Gossypium, Hibiscus rosa sinensis, Malva sylvestris, Althea rosea.

Distinguishing Characters of Family Compositac (Astcraccae)

1. Plants are generally herbs.
2. Inflorescence a capitulum-homogamous or heterogamous.
3. Calyx-sepals pappus or 2-3 scales.
4. Corolla —Ray florets—ligulate Disc, florets—tubular.
5. Androecium-stamens 5, epipetalous syngenesious.
6. Gynaecium-carpellary, syncarpous ovary inferior, unilocular with a single basal ovule, stigma bifid.
7. Fruit a cypsella.
8. F.F. Ray Florets Br or neuter,

Examples Ornamental. Chrysanthemum, Helianthus, Dahlia, Zinnia, Aster, Cosmos. Oil yielding. Carthamus tinctorius, Helianthus annus. Medicinal. Artemisia maritima, Saussurea lappa.

Characteristics of Family Liliaccae

1. Generally actinomorphic, trimerous, and hypogynous flowers.
2. Perianth petaloid, biseriate.
3. Stamens are 6, biseriate, epiphyllous anisophyllous.
4. Tricarpellary syncarpous superior ovary with axile placentation.
5. Fruit a berry or loculicidal capsule.
6. Seed monocot endospermic.

Important Genera. Allium cepa, (Onion) Asparagus, Smilax, Yucca, Gloriosa, and Aloe

Characteristics of Family Cucurbitaccae

1. Plants herbs, generally climbing.
2. Flowers, unisexual, epigynous.
3. Androceium-stamens synandrous.
4. Gynaecium-tricarpellary, ovary inferior, trilocular with parietal placentation.
5. Fruit —a pepo.
6. Vascular bundle in stem collateral.

Examples. Vegetables, Cucurbita, Coccinia, Cucumis sativus, Trichosanthes anguinFruit. Cucumis melo.

Taxonomy Of Angiosperms NEET Question Bank

Characteristics of family Gramirieae

1. Flowers are arranged in spikelets which in turn are grouped in spikes.
2. Each spikelet is enclosed with two scales called glumes.
3. Each flower is covered with two scales called lemma and palea.
4. Anthers generally divaricate and versatile.
5. Ovary unilocular and two feathery stigmas.
6. Fruit is commonly a caryopsis or grain.

Important plants

Triticum aestivum (wheat), Oryza sativa (rice), Zea mays (maize), Hordeum vulgare (barley), Avena sativa (oats), Andropogon odoratus, and Saccharum munja.

• The floral formula delineates the arrangement of various whorls of the flower, their quantity, cohesiveness, adhesion, and any interrelationships.
• The Brassicaceae family, previously referred to as Cruciferae, comprises 375 genera and around 3,200 species, including 150 endemic to India.
• The Fabaceae family was previously referred to as Papilionideae. In the Poaceae family, the perianth is referred to as lodicule.
• The inflorescence in Poaceae or Gramineae is a spikelet.
• In the Gramineae family, the fruit is a caryopsis, wherein the pericarp is merged with the testa.
• Bamboo is utilized for the production of sticks, flutes, ladders, furniture, and other items.
• Khus oil is derived from the roots and rhizomes of Vetiveria zizanoides.
• In the Liliaceae family, the flowers are trimerous, pentacyclic, and hypogynous.
• In Liliaceae, the gynoecium is tricarpellary, syncarpous, and trilocular with axile placentation.
• The odd sepal is positioned anteriorly in Papilionaceae. Nodulated roots occur on the roots of Papilionaceae members.
• The corolla is papilionaceous in the family Papilionaceae.
• Oil is derived from the seeds of Arachis hypogea (groundnut) and Glycine max (soybean). Oil undergoes hydrogenation to produce vanaspati ghee.
• The fruit is referred to as siliqua or silicula in the Brassicaceae family.
• The stamens in Brassicaceae are six in number, polyandrous, and tetradynamous.
• The inflorescence of Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (cauliflower) is consumable.
• The roots of Lepidium sativum treat syphilis, hemorrhoids, and cough.
• The inflorescence is a capitulum in the family Compositae.
• The fruit of Compositae is a cypsella, which may or may not possess a pappus.
• The gynoecium of the sunflower is carpellary, syncarpous, inferior, unilocular, and contains a single basal ovule.
• In the Solanaceae family, the gynoecium is carpellary, syncarpous, superior, and features an obliquely positioned ovary with a large placenta. The placentation is axile.
• Tomatoes, potatoes, and chilies are members of the Solanaceae family.

Floral Formulae 

NEET Biology Taxonomy Of Angiosperms Quanta To Memory

• Bentham and Hooker classified seed plants into three divisions: Dicots, Monocots, and Gymnosperms.
• Hooker characterized taxa based on direct examination of the specimens.
• These are the most prevalent vascular plants on the planet.
• The plant structure is the sporophyte, which is differentiated into authentic roots, stems, and leaves.
• In botany, phytospecies constitutes the fundamental unit of classification.
• In the phylogenetic categorization system, plants are categorized based on evolutionary tendencies.
• The biological definition of species mostly relies on the attributes of reproductive structures.
• A novel species is identified based on floral characteristics.
• Floral organs, such as stamens and carpels, exhibit less changes compared to vegetative traits.
• For instance, In Malvaceae, the stamens are typically monadelphous.
• Currently, woody plants are considered primitive, whereas herbaceous plants are viewed as advanced.
• Fruits are exclusive to angiosperms, vascular tissue is highly developed, and tap roots are prevalent in dicots.
• In angiosperms, bees serve as the predominant pollinators of agricultural species due to their attraction to floral nectar and fragrance.
• Insectivorous plants thrive on nitrogen-poor soil.
• They obtain partial nitrogen satisfaction from deceased insects.

Taxonomy Of Angiosperms NEET Question Bank

• Pollination by bats is called chiropterophily. Bats are attracted due to nectar and pollen grains.
• Stems have conjoint, collateral, or concentric vascular bundles which may be open as in dicots or closed as in monocots.
• Dependence on water is overcome by siphonogamy.
• Monocots do not grow in girth, though they grow in length and produce new leaves and flowers.
• Seeds are perennating structures and help in the dispersal of plants.
• Smallest parasitic plant is Arceothobium minastissimum. In cyathium inflorescence, a single male flower is represented by a single stamen.
• When an entire inflorescence is converted into a fruit, it is called a composite fruit.
• The flowers are unisexual and are on the same plant, this condition of a plant is referred to as monoecious.
• The entire family of Compositae is characterized by the presence of head or capitulum inflorescence.
• Agave and Bamboo are perennial but are monocarpic monocots, usually with no normal secondary growth due to the absence of cambium.
• Xylem has vessels, i.e., wood is porous. However, vessels are absent in some members of Ranales, for Example, Tetracentron, Trochodendron, Sarcandra, etc.
• Phloem has companion cells in association with sieve tubes.
• Double fertilization is a regular phenomenon.
• Endosperm is usually triploid and is formed as a result of triple fusion after fertilization.
• Seeds are enclosed within the pericarp i.e., fruits are formed due to the presence of the ovary.
• The leaves of bryophyllum have buds on the margins of leaves. These buds develop into new plants.
• In Arachis hypogea (groundnut), the flowers after pollination bury themselves inside the soil and develop into fruits and seeds. Such movements are called geocarpic movements.
• Royal Botanical Garden Herbarium at Kew (England) is the biggest famous herbarium in the world and has 65,000,000 plants.
• Indian Botanical Garden Herbarium at Sibpur (Kolkata) is the biggest in India and has 25,000,000 plants.

NEET Biology Taxonomy Of Angiosperms Questions from competitive examinations

Question 1. The flora! Formula condition +, <j> k5, c5, a7 + 3, g1 is found in the family

1. Mimosoidcac
2. Caesalpiniaceae
3. Papilionaceac
4. Cruciferae

Answer: 2. Caesalpiniaceae

Question 2. A plant has a butterfly-shaped flower with one standard wing-like and two keel petals. The plant belongs to the family:

1. Papilionaceae
2. Compositae
3. Malvaceae
4. Rubiaceae.

Answer: 1. Papilionaceae

Question 3. Gloriosa superba has parallel venation with leaf apex modified as tendril belongs to which of these families?

1. Cucurbitaceae
2. Malvaceae
3. Labiatae
4. Liliaceae.

Answer: 3. Labiatae

Taxonomy Of Angiosperms NEET Question Bank

Question 4. The flower of Fabaceae is:

1. Actinomorphic, complete, trimerous
2. Actinomorphic, incomplete, pentamerous
3. Zygomorphic, complete, trimerous
4. Zygomorphic, complete, pentamerous

Answer: 4. Zygomorphic, complete, pentamerous

Question 5. Choose the correct description of the flower depicted in the floral diagram given below

1. United, valvate sepals; free, imbricate petals; free stamens; unilocular ovary with marginal placenta
2. United, valvate sepals: free, imbricate petals, epipetalous stamens; unilocular ovary with marginal placenta
3. United, valvate sepals; free, imbricate petals; free stamens; unilocular ovary with axile placenta
4. United, valvate sepals; free, twisted petals; free stamens; unilocular ovary with marginal placenta

Answer: 1. United, valvate sepals; free, imbricate petals; free stamens; unilocular ovary with marginal placenta

Question 6. Angiosperms have dominated the land flora primarily by their:

1. Power of adaptability to diverse habitats
2. Nature of pollination
3. Domestication by humans
4. A large number of seeds

Answer: 1. Power of adaptability to diverse habitats

Question 7. Lady’s finger belongs to the family:

1. Liliaceae
2. Cucurbitaceae
3. Brassicaceae
4. Malvaceae

Answer: 4. Malvaceae

Question 6. The botanical name of chana is:

1. Dolichos
2. Lablab purpeureuns
3. Phaseolus assets
4. Cicer arietinum

Answer: 1. Dolichos

Angiosperm Taxonomy NEET Mcqs

Question 9. Plants of which one of the following groups of genera are pollinated by the same agency?

1. Triticum, cocos, mangifera
2. Ficus, kigelia, casuarina
3. Salvia, morus, euphorbia
4. Bombax, butea, bauhinia

Answer: 4. Bombax, butea, bauhinia

Question 10. Pentamerous actinomorphic flowers, bi-carpellary ovary with oblique septa, and fruit a capsule or barry are characteristic features of:

1. Solanaceae
2. Liliaceae
3. Asteraceae
4. Brassicaceae

Answer: 1. Solanaceae

Question 11. What type of placentation is seen in sweet peas?

1. Free central
2. Marginal
3. Basal
4. Axile

Answer: 4. Axile

Question 12. “Ordines anomaly” of Bentham and hooker includes

1. Seed plants showing abnormal forms of growth and development
2. Plants described only in a fossil state
3. Plants described in the literature but which Bentham and hooker did not see in original
4. A few orders which could not be placed satisfactorily

Answer: 1. Seed plants showing abnormal forms of growth and development

Question 13. Observe the given floral diagram and choose the suitable floral formula from the following:

Answer: 3.

Question 14. In the members of the family Malvaceae, anthers are described as

1. Diadelphous and distichous
2. Diadelphous and monotonous
3. Monadelphous and distichous
4. Monadelphous and monotonous

Answer: 4. Monadelphous and monotonous

Question 15. Syngcncsious stamen is found in family

1. Atasteraccac
2. Solaanacceae
3. Fabaceae
4. Poaceae

Answer: 1. Atasteraccac

Angiosperm Taxonomy NEET Mcqs

Question 16. Which of the following is a merit in the Bentham and hooker’s system of classification?

1. At the position of gymnospermae in between decals and mounts
2. Closely related families are placed apart
3. The placement of the family Asteraceae at the beginning of gamopetalous
4. The placement of order rentals at the beginning
5. The placement of orchidaccae in microspermae.

Answer: 4. The placement of Orchidaceae in microspermae.

Question 17. Which of the following represents the floral characters of Liliaccae?

1. Six tepals. Zygomorphic, six stamens, bilocular ovary, axile placentation
2. Tetramerous, actinomorphic, polyphyllous, unilocular ovary, axile placentation
3. Trimerous, actinomorphic, polyandrous, superior ovary, axile placentation
4. Bisexual, zygomorphic, gamophyllous, inferior ovary, marginal placentation
5. Unisexual, actinomorphic, trilocular, inferior ovary, axile placentation.

Answer: 3. Trimerous, actinomorphic, polyandrous, superior ovary, axile placentation

Question 18. The botanical name of soybean is:

1. Cajanus cajan
2. Glycine max
3. Glycyrrhiza glabra
4. Abrus precatorius
5. Dolichos lablab.

Answer: 2. Glycine max

Question 19. Which of the following is/are not characteristic features of Asteraceae?

1. Cypsela type of fruit
2. Syngenesious stamens
3. Ovary bicarpellary and superior
4. Placentation marginal
5. Head type of inflorescence.

Answer: 3. Ovary bicarpellary and superior

Question 20. Family podostemaceae is placed under the series:

1. Mulliovulatae aquatic
2. Microembryeae
3. Dephnales
4. Uniscxuales
5. Hetcromerae.

Answer: 1. Mulliovulatae aquatic

Question 21. In guava, cucurbits flowers are:

1. Hypogynous flower
2. Epigynous flower
3. Pcrigynous (lower)
4. Both hypogynous and perigynous

Answer: 2. Epigynous flower

Angiosperm Taxonomy NEET Exam Preparation

Question 22. In floral formula (k) denotes :

1. Polysepnlous
2. Gamoscpalous
3. Polypetalous
4. Gamopctalous.

Answer: 2. Gamoscpalous

Question 23. Consider the following statements for gymnosperms and angiosperms.

1. Double fertilization is an event unique to gymnosperms.
2. Angiosperms range in size from microscopic to tall trees of sequoia.
3. In gymnosperms, the seeds are not covered.
4. In gymnosperms, the male and female gametophytes have an independent free-living existence.

Of the above statements

1. A and b alone are correct
2. C alone is correct
3. B and c alone are correct
4. C and D alone are correct
5. D alone is correct.

Answer: 1. A and b alone are correct

Question 24. Match die following and choose the correct combination from the options given.

1. A-4,B-3,C-2,D-1
2. A-1,B-2,C-3,D-4
3. A-2,B-3,C-4,D-1
4. A-4,B-3,C-1,D-2
5. A-4,B-3,C-1,D-2

Answer: 1. A-4,B-3,C-2,D-1

Question 25. The distinct features of Fabaceae are

1. Zygomorphic, diadelphous, and monocarpellary
2. Actinomorphic, monadelphous, and monocarpellary
3. Zygomorphic, monadelphous and pentacarpellary
4. Zygomorphic, polyadelphous and tricarpellary
5. Zygomorphic, diadelphous, and bicarpellary.

Answer: 1. Zygomorphic, diadelphous, and monocarpellary

Question 26. Among bitter gourd, mustard, brinjal, pumpkin, china rose, lupin, cucumber, sunn hemp, gram, guava, bean, chili, plum, petunia, tomato, rose, Withania, potato, onion, aloe, and tulip how many plants have hypogynous floowers?

1. Ten
2. Fifteen
3. Eighteen
4. Six

Answer: 1. Ten

Question 27. In China rose flowers are:

1. Actinomorphic, epigynous with valvate aestivation
2. Zygomorphic, hypogynous with imbricate aestivation
3. Zygomorphic, epigynous with twisted aestivation
4. Actinomorphic, hypogynous with twisted aestivation

Answer: 4. Actinomorphic, hypogynous with twisted aestivation

NEET Biology Pteridophyta

• Pteridophytes. The term Pteridophyta was coined by Haeckel. Pteron (Gk) means a feather and the name Pteridophyta was given to this group because of their pinnate or feather-like fronds. Pteridophytes include about 10,000 species.
• Ferns are a big group of pteridophyta with 9300 species and some ferns may be 18 metres in height (Giant tree fern).
• The smallest pteridophyte is Azolla (aquatic fern)

Read and Learn More NEET Biology Notes

Habitats of pteridophytes

Pteridophyta NEET Notes

Features of pteridophytes

1. Pteridophytes are assemblages of seedless vascular plants that have successfully invaded the land and reproduce through spores.
2. Main plant body is sporophyte (2N).
3. initiated into root, rhizome, and leaves. The latter may be megaphyllous or microphyllous.
4. Plants show evolution of stele from protostele siphonostelesolenostele dictyostele dictyostele.
5. Spores are produced in sporangia after meiosis. A group of sporangia occurs in the form of sorus covered with indusium. They may be homosporous (For example ferns) or heterosporous (For example Selaginella).
6. Gametophytic Generation. Spores on germination form prothallus which is monoecious, bear both antheridia and archegonia.
7. Sperms and eggs on fertilization form oospores which again start sporophytic generation
8. The life cycle of Pteridophytes is of Diplohaplontic type i.e. main plant body is sporophyte which alternates with gametophyte. Both generations are morphologically dissimilar. This is also called a heterologous type of alternation of generations.

NEET Biology Pteridophyta Selaginella

The sporophytic generation of this lycopod has a plant body differentiated into genuine roots, stems, and leaves. The branched stem is typically horizontal and prostrate.

• Rhizophores extend vertically downward from the branches of the dichotomies. Adventitious roots form when the rhizosphere contacts the soil. The leaves may be uniform or potentially dimorphic.
• They possess microphyllous and ligulate characteristics. The sporophyte generates spores. Selaginella exhibits heterospory.
• Spores are generated in sporangia located in the axil of the sporophylls. The sporophylls are clustered at the terminal sections of the branches, forming the strobili.
• Each strobilus possesses microsporophylls and megasporophylls that are analogous and ligulate.
• The microsporophylls support the microsporangia, while the megasporophylls support the megasporangia.
• Each microsporangium and megasporangium possesses a bilayered jacket surrounding a nutritive tissue, the tapetum, which encases the spore mother cells. The majority of microspore mother cells undergo meiosis to produce many microspores.
• In the megasporangium, typically only one megaspore mother cell remains functional (sometimes 2-3), and after meiosis, it creates four megaspores, of which commonly one to three are nonfunctional. In S. motorsport, only a single megaspore is operational.

Pteridophyta NEET Study Material

• The developing spores are provided with nourishment by the remaining megaspore mother cells that endure degeneration
• The megasporangium assumes a lobed aspect as a consequence of the megaspores’ expansion. The spores are expelled through the dehiscence of the wall, which is divided into two halves by a vertical apical incision.
• The gametophytes. The spores are the initial cells of the gametophytic generation. The gametophyte’s growth is precocious and begins in the sporangia.

Modifications of siphonostctc

1. Cladosiphonic siphonostele. A siphonostele not perforated by leaf gaps Example a few species of Selaginella.
2. Phyllosiphonic siphonostele. A siphonostele perforated by leaf gaps- Example Nephrolepis.
3. Solenostele. A siphonostele perforated by leaf gaps which are scattered but not overlapping Example Ferns.
4. Dictyostele. A siphonostele perforated by several overlapping leaf gaps. Each separate strand is called a meri stele Example Dryopteris, Pteridium, Pteris, etc.
5. Polycyclic dictyostele. A dictyostele consisting of two or more concentric rings of meristeles Example Pteridium aquilinum.
6. Eustele. Much dissected siphonostele having vascular strands separated apart by parenchyma Example Equisetum.
7. Polysetelic condition. Presence of more than one stele Example Selaginella kraussiana.

The microspores are orange-red, tetrahedral, with a two-layered wall and tri-radiate.

Their nucleus divides by mitosis to form male gametophytes within their wall. Their liberation is generally withheld upto the 13-celled stage.

At this stage, they contain 1 urothelial cell, 8 jacket cells, and 4 androgenic cells. The four androgenic cells divide to form the antherozoid mother cells and astrocytes and ultimately 256 antherozoids are formed.

Each antherozoid is biciliate and liberated by the rupturing of the exine. They swim about freely in search of a female gametophyte or if developed within the sporangium they may be carried along with the raindrops.

The megaspores are large, white to pale green, tetrahedral, and tri-radiate.

They may be shed before any trace of a cellular organization or shortly after the first archegonia are formed or may be retained until after fertilization and a considerable development of the embryo.

The germinating megaspore enlarges considerably followed by free-nuclear division eventually giving rise to a massive multicellular megagametophyte or female gametophyte tissue. A part of the tissue of the gametophyte gets exposed.

The exposed region may contain chlorophyll and even rhizoids. Several archegonia develop from the superficial cells of this tissue along with clusters of rhizoids.

The mature archegonia have a neck of two tiers of cells each, enclosing a neck canal cell and venter enclosing a ventral canal cell and an egg. At maturity, the neck and venter canal cells disintegrate exposing the egg to be fertilized.

Pteridophyta NEET Biology Notes

Fertilization of the egg by the antherozoids results in the formation of the zygote or oospore.

Apogamy and parthenogenesis are known in several species.

The young Sporophyte. Following fertilization, the resulting zygote secretes a wall and divides and redivides to form the embryo. The embryo pushes its way into the tissues of the gametophyte by its suspensor.

It is differentiated into a stem apex, two leaf primordia with their ligules at one end, and the rhizosphere at the opposite end. Situated between them is the foot. This juvenile sporophyte ultimately matures into a sporophyte of Selaginella.

NEET Biology Pteridophyta Life Cycle Of Dryopteris

It belongs to the division Pteropsida, Class Filicineae, order Filicales, and family Polypodiaceae.

The plant body is sporophytic and the mature sporophyte contains roots, rhizomes, and leaves.

Roots are adventitious. The rhizome is well-branched and remains covered with several fine hairs called ramenta. Leaves are circinately coiled, when young. Mature leaves are very large and bipinnately compound.

Internally, the roots are ditch and exarch.

1. Internally, the rhizome contains a dictyostele. Each dictyostele is made up of meristeles. Companion cells are absent in the phloem and the xylem is devoid of vessels.
2. The stele is horseshoe-shaped in the upper portion of the rachis, while in its lower portion, it is made up of several meristeles.
3. Spores are present in the sporangium. Several sporangia are grouped in a sorus. Several sori remain attached on the lower surface ofthe leaves, and such leaves are called sporophylls. Sori kidney-shaped bodies. Each sorus remains covered by a layer of indusium.
4. Each sporangium is a stalked body. The edge contains 16-30, small brown cells called annulus. They possess thickenings on the inner and radial walls. The outer walls remain thin.
5. A strip of thin-walled cells on each sporangium represents the stomium. The diploid spore mother cells, present inside the sporangium, divide by meiosis, and each forms four haploid spores.
6. The spore germinates to produce a heart-shaped prothallus or gametophyte. Both the sex organs (antheridia and archegonia) and the rhizoids are present on the ventral surface of the prothallus. Archegonia are present in apical cushion and antheridia are present in rhizoidal region.
7. Antheridia are present on the lower part of the ventral surface of the prothallus, along with rhizoids. Antherozoids are uninucleate and multiflagellate.
8. Archegonia are present near the apical notch.
9. Fertilization takes place in the presence of water. Malic acid is the chemotactic substance present in the archegonium. The zygote develops into a sporophyte without reduction division. The young sporophyte remains attached to the gametophyte for some time.
10. Plants show heteromorphic alternation of generations.

Economic Importance

1. Food. Sporocarps of Marsilea are edible. The starchy pith of Angiopteris erecta and Alsophila australis is eaten by the natives of Australia.
2. Medicines. Rhizomes and petioles of Dryopteris have vermifuge properties. Adiantum roots can cure throat infections.
3. Its leaves are dried and used as a laxative. Lycopodium is used in the treatment of rheumatism and disorders of the lungs and kidneys. Equisetum arvense is a diuretic while its ash relieves acidity and dyspepsia.
4. Scrubbing. Equisetum stems have rough and abrasive surfaces. They are used in scrubbing and polishing.
5. Ornamental value. Some ferns and club mosses are grown indoors as well as in gardens for their graceful foliage.

• A few characteristics that are responsible for the successful survival of vascular plants are: deep soil penetrating root system.
• Water-saving methods developed by plants as cuticles on leaves.
• support to woody plants is provided by collenchyma, sclerenchyma, and by the lignification of wood.
• they bear a vertical main axis and a conspicuous radial symmetry around the axis. Such construction permits efficient nutrient absorption from all sides around the plant. The pteridophytes were the first plants to develop vascular tissue.
• Pteridophytes are vascular plants without flowers and seeds.
• In pteridophytes sporophyte is independent and in bryophytes the sporophyte is dependent.
• The pteridophytes are the most primitive living (For example Selaginella, Lycopodium, Equisetum) and fossil (For example Rhynia) Vascular plants.
• The absence of root hair and root cap is a stem-like character of Selaginella rhizophore.
• They are regarded as organogenesis. Resembles with stem, exogenous origin, adventitious roots, and bear leaves when injured.
• Calixylon is a fossil pteridophyte from the upper Devonian period with a trunk of 5ft. These heterosporous pteridophytes must have given rise to gymnosperms.
• Simple sori (primitive) in which all sporangia develop simultaneously.
• Gradate sori (more advanced): where sporangia develop in basipetal succession or mixed sori (most advanced): where sporangia develop in an irregular sequence.
• Dryopteris and moss form monoecious gametophytes as all spores are uniform.
• Suigenesis means neither a root nor a shoot complete but something new.
• Circinate ptyxis is shown by young leaves that are under the influence of hyponasty and they take two years to open up under the influence of epinasty.

Pteridophyta NEET Question Bank

NEET Biology Pteridophyta Quanta To Memory

• Haeckel coined the term pteridophyta (vascular cryptogam).
• Zimmaman (1930) proposed the “Telome theory” for the evolution of vascular plants. He proposed that all vascular plants have evolved from simple dichotomously branched pteridophytes such as Rhynia.
• Tree fern with upright aerial stem Example Cyathaea, Alsophila.
• Cyathaea is the tallest fem
• Rhynia is a fossil plant placed under Psilophytales.
• Salvinia , Azolla and Marsilea are water ferns.
• Spores are usually all alike ( i.e. Homosporous) Example Lycopodium, Pteris, Adiantum, Pteridium, etc. or they are of two different sizes (i.e., Heterosporous) Example Selaginella, isolates, Marsilea, Azolla, Salvinia etc.
• Dryopteris is homosporous and Selaginella is heterosporous
• Sporangia are usually borne on or in the axil of leaves
  called sporophylls. Examples are Lycopodium, Selaginella, and Pteris.
  Nephrolepis, Adiantum, etc. In some aquatic plants
  sporangia are produced within specialized structures called
  sporocarps, for Example, Marsilea, Salvinia, Azolla, Regnellidium,
  Pilularia etc.
• In pteridophytes or Ferns, the archegonia secrete malic acid which attracts the antherozoids.
• In pteridophytes ovules are absent. Selaginella and fem both are pteridophytes, so in both ovules are absent.
• Azolla, a water fem is used as a biofertilizer.
• Ferns are cultivated as ornamental plants.
• The embryo is diploid and spores are haploid.
• In the fem, the neck is small and is having a single neck canal cell with two nuclei.
• In a fern Example, Pteris or Dryopteris sex organs are produced on the lower side of the prothallus and antheridia are towards the base among the rhizoids.
• In some ferns, trophopod (a food storage organ formed by large and modified leaf base) has been found, for Example Asplenium, and Dryopterisfragrans.
• In ferns, spores are produced in sporangia after meiosis in diploid spore mother cells.
• Precocious Germination. In situ, spores germinate while in sporangium Spike. The collection of sessile sporophyll is called spike.
• Tapetum is the innermost layer of sporangial jacket. It provides nutrition and degenerates at maturity.
• Heterosporous pteridophytes like Selaginella and Marsilea always produce dioecious gametophytes because microspores will form male gametophytes and megaspores will form female gametophytes.
• The bursting point of the fem sporangium is the stomium. It is made up o£ thin walled cells. Due to tension in the annulus, stomium breaks down.
• In Selaginella, the stele is suspended by unicelled trabeculae.
• The suigenesis hypothesis of rhizophore was given by Goebel.
• Ramenta. In ferns, the multicelled, chaffy, and dry scales covering young rhizomes and leaves which prevent desiccation are called ramenta.
• In ferns, endodermis has characteristic Casparian strip.
• Stomium: The place from where the capsule opens is called the stomium.
• Golden fem— Onychium
• Walking fem = maiden hair fem — Adiantum
• Male shield fem— Dryopteris
• In Marsilea [fern] microspore forms 9 celled male gamete
• There is no annulus in Marsilea.

Pteridophyta NEET Exam Preparation

• In ferns, the xylem is mesarch in stem, petiole, and leaves while in roots it is diarchy.
• A corm-like rhizomorph occurs in isolates.
• Apospory. Development of gametophyte directly from the vegetative cells of sporophyte without formation of spores. It was first demonstrated by Druery (1884).
• Apogamy. Development of sporophyte from gametophytic tissue without involving fusion of gametes. It was first observed by Farlow in Pteris and the term apogamy was introduced by de Bary (1978)
• Eusporangium. Sporangia spore-producing structures develop from a group of initial cells Example in Psilatum Lycopodium, Equisetum.
• Leptosporangium. Sporangia originate from a single superficial cell Example in Marsilea, Pteris In some forms eg Polypodium aureum and Drynaria regidula the leaves develop prothalli under dim light but sporophytic buds under strong light.
• Rhynia was discovered from Rhyncihert Valley in
  Scotland by Mackie (1913).
• Each leaf of Selaginella bears on its upper surface near its base a small membranous, tongue-like outgrowth ligule.
• Large greatly vacuolated cells for water absorption are called glossopodium.

NEET Biology Plant Kingdom Bryophyta Characters

Bryophyla Gk. Bryon = moss +pliyton = plants are also called “Amphibious plants or kingdom Plantae”.

Tlicse are liverworts, mosses, and hornworts which collectively constitute a group of vascular plants. About 25,000 species of liverworts and mosses are known.

1. The plants represent two morphologically distinct generations i.e. gametophytic and sporophytic.
2. The gametophytic phase is the dominant phase of the cycle and in general plant body term is used for this phase.
3. The plant body in primitive forms like Riccia and Marchantia is thalloid but mosses like Funaria. it may be differentiated into rhizoids, stems, and leaves.
4. The thalli of Riccia and Marchantia are attached to the substratum by unicellular, unbranched rhizoids, which may be smooth-walled or tuberculated but in mosses like Funaria, rhizoids are branched, multicellular, and obliquely septate.
5. The plant body is made up of simple thin-walled parenchymatous cells. The xylem, phloem (vascular tissue), and mechanical tissue (sclerenchyma, etc.) are altogether lacking in bryophytes.
6. Bryophytes are found in moist places due to the following reasons:
7. In the absence of true roots, cells can absorb water directly from the ground or atmosphere.
8. Biflagellate sperms of bryophytes need water for their movement to reach
   the archegonium (female sex organ) for fertilization.
9. Mosses seldom reach heights. Funaria is 1-3 cm in height. They rarely grow more than 15 cm in height. The tallest species of Moss has been reported from New Zealand having a size of 60 cm.
10. Vegetative propagation. They have a very good power of regeneration.
11. Sexual reproduction. Bryophytes have evolved a life cycle that comprises two phases gametophyte (IN) and sporophyte (2N). The conspicuous stage in the life cycle is gametophyte which may be thallus, liver-like as in liverworts, or leafy as in mosses.

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Bryophyta NEET Notes

Vegetative reproduction occurs by:

1. Progressive death and decay of thallus
2. Adventitious buds
3. Persistent apices
4. Tubers
5. Gemmae
6. Bulbils
7. Protonema

Gametophytes

1. At maturity, the gametophytes are nutritionally independent, while sporophytes are dependent upon as well as being permanently attached to gametophytes.
2. Bryophytes reproduce vegetatively by tubers, gemmae, fragmentation, etc.
3. The male sex organ is called the antheridium.
4. Antheridium is made up of a mass of astrocytes enclosed by the sterile jacket.
5. Each astrocyte gives rise to biflagellate sperms (male gamete).
6. Sexual reproduction is of the oogamous type
7. The female sex organ is called archegonium.
8. Each archegonium is a multicellular flask-shaped structure. Its lower dilated, swollen part is called the venter and its slender, elongated upper part is called the neck.
9. Sex organs antheridium and archegonium are multicellular and jacketed.
10. The venter encloses the egg (female gamete) and venter canal cell. The neck encloses a row of neck canal cells.
11. The syngamy (fertilization) takes place in water. The sperms swim in the water to reach the archegonium. One of the sperm fuses with an egg to form a diploid zygote.
12. The zygote undergoes continuous divisions without undergoing any resting period
13. The developing embryo is retained inside the center, where it finally develops into sporogonium.
14. The sporophytes (sporogonia) are partially or completely dependent upon gametophytes.
15. The sporogonium is usually differentiated into foot, seta, and capsule.
16. In Riccia foot and seta are absent. The capsule is embedded in the thallus. In Riccia even the sex organs are found inside the thallus.
17. In capsule, meiosis occurs in spore mother cells to form haploid spores.
18. The spores are homosporous i.e. only of one type- the young gametophyte.
19. Haploid spores, after dispersal from the capsule, may germinate either directly into gametophytic thallus (Riccia, Marchantia, or may form filamentous protonema which bears adventitious buds to give rise to leafy paint (gametophore)

Bryophyta NEET Study Material

Alternation of generations.

1. Bryophytes exhibit a distinct and heteromorphic alternation of generations in which two phases gametophytic and sporophytic follow each other in regular sequences.
2. The first phase is gametophyte which produces male and female gametes (i.e. antheridium and archegonium).
3. The sporophyte phase starts immediately after fertilization of egg and sperm with the formation of a diploid zygote.
4. The zygote forms a diploid multicellular sporogonium which is usually differentiated into foot, seta, and capsule (moss).
5. Haploid spores are formed after meiosis. Thus spore is the first cell of the gametophytic generation.
6. The spore germinates to give rise to the plant body (haploid) directly or after protonema formation.
7. Because a gametophytic stage alternates with a sporophytic stage, a clear alternation of generations is present which is of a heteromorphic type
8. Bryophytes are considered more advanced than green algae as they represent a multicellular sporophytic generation.

NEET Biology Plant Kingdom Bryophyta Funaria

It is a moss located in damp and shaded environments. The primary plant is part of the gametophytic generation, characterized by a leafy gametophore. It originates from the lateral bud of the protonema, which signifies the juvenile stage.

• The plant possesses rhizoids, cauloid stem-like structures, and phylloid leaf-like structures. Leaves are green and produce food through photosynthesis. The stem has inadequate branching, with lateral branches present.
• Vegetative reproduction occurs by the fragmentation of leafy gametophores, protonema, and secondary protonema, among other methods. The plant is monoecious, possessing male reproductive organs at the apex of the male branch and female reproductive organs at the apex of the female branch.
• The male branch tip is enveloped by peritoneal leaves and exhibits a rosette-like morphology. The female branch of Perichaetia exhibits leaves with a bud-like appearance; this aspect is unsightly, as both sexes are located on separate branches.
• Antheridia are club-shaped and interspersed with green, unbranched filamentous filaments known as paraphysis.
• A single antheridium produces a substantial quantity of motile, biflagellate, curved-body antherozoids.
• Archegonia are flask-shaped formations. They also alternate with paraphyses that possess the same structure and function.
• A solitary archegonium possesses a contorted neck, comprising 6-10 neck canal cells, a distended venter containing a single oosphere, and a venter canal cell.
• Antherozoids navigate through the water to reach the archegonium, guided chemotactically by sucrose, enter the neck, and fuse their nucleus with the oosphere to form an oospore (2N).

Bryophyta NEET Question Bank

Oospore divides mitotically to produce sporogonium having foot, seta, and capsule. 1 Capsule has apophysis, theca, and operculum.

• Sporogonium has green cells so it is partially Aa—1 dependent on the gametophyte.
• The spore sac in theca part has spore mother cells (2N) which by meiosis produce haploid spores. The peristome (32 teeth in two whorls) helps in spore liberation.
• A single spore on a suitable substratum produces primary protonema.
• Thus in the life cycle of Funaria, there are two distinct generations. One of these is a haploid independent leafy moss plant, the other is a diploid sporophyte.
• The two alternate with each other, it is called heteromorphic Alternation of Generations and the life cycle is diplohaplontic.

Liver worts

• The protonema stage is absent.
• Vascular tissues as well as conducting tissues are absent.
• Liverworts have unicellular rhizoids instead of roots.
• The plant body of liverworts shows dichotomous branching.
• The plant body possesses scales or amphigastria for retaining moisture and protection.
• Capsule possesses elaters for dehiscence.
• The capsule is devoid of any assimilatory tissue, columella, and peristome.
• The capsule is the fertile part of sporogonium
• Sporogonium may or may not show distinction into the foot, seta, and capsule

Mosses

• They possess a juvenile filamentous stage called protonema.
• Multicellular rhizoids are present instead of roots.
• Sporogonium is differentiated into foot, seta, and capsule.
• Capsule has abundant assimilatory tissue and columella.
• Capsule produces haploid spores.
• In mosses elaters are absent.
• Moss plant develops on protonema as buds.
• Moss leaves [phylloids] may have non-vascular midribs.

Economic importance

The peat deposits of Sphagnum, an aquatic moss, are harvested in blocks, desiccated, and utilized as fuel due to their exceptional absorptive capabilities and antiseptic attributes.

• Sphagnum is utilized for wound dressing. Sphagnum, owing to its water-retention capacity, is utilized for packaging plants and cut flowers destined for distant locations.
• Gardeners utilize this moss for vegetative proliferation during layering and similar techniques. Peat holds significant value for agriculturalists. Its incorporation into clayey soils enhances the soil’s texture.
• Peattar, ammonia, and paraffin are some of the byproducts of peat. It is an excellent soil enhancer, it occupies ponds, pools, etc., and ultimately, due to its rampant proliferation, they get filled.
• The debris is progressively transformed into solid earth. Sphagnum in the pools resembles soil and is therefore referred to as quaking bogs.
• Bryophytes have a significant role in soil erosion prevention. The expansive carpets or mats they create stabilize the soil, so preventing erosion.
• Function in ecological succession. The Moss stage is the second phase of biological succession on bare rock, gradually transforming the rock substrate into rich soil.
• Wetlands. Sphagnum peat mosses proliferate swiftly in shallow waterways, creating dense mats on the water’s surface. They provide a deceptive semblance of solidity, resulting in the drowning of both animals and humans.
• Cuisine. Mosses serve as sustenance for several small creatures. Certain avian species, such as GrouseChicken, consume the capsules of Bryum and Polytrichum.

Apophysis It is a sterile and photosynthetic lower part of the capsule. Paraphysis are sterile structures present in archegonia and antheridia Analogous structures are those which are functionally similar but genetically different.

• The leaves and stem of Funaria are functionally similar to the leaves and stem of angiosperms but genetically different.
• Perichaetial leaves whorl of leaves surrounding archegonia.
• Perigonial leaves. A whorl of leaves surrounding antheridia.
• Homosporous. Morphological meiospores in bryophytes are of one kind. This condition is called Homosporous.
• Heteromorphic alternation of generations. When the gametophyte and the sporophyte of the same plant are completely different in size and shape, that is called heteromorphic alternation of generations or heterologous type of alternation of generations.
• Columella is a sterile structure present in the capsule of Funaria surrounded by a spore sac in theca region.
• Cauloid and PhyllokL The stem and leaf-life organs of bryophytes are generally called as cauloid and phylloid respectively as there is the complete absence of vascular tissue and these are gametophytic structures. ChJorenema or Caulanema. The colored branches of protonema are called chlorine or caulanema Cauloid. Stem-like structure of moss is called cauloid.

Bryophyta NEET Question Bank

NEET Biology Plant Kingdom Bryophyta Quanta To Memory

• In the Bryophyte’s life cycle, the dominant phase is a gametophyte because the main plant body is gametophytic and dominant.
• In Bryophytes meiosis occurs in diploid spore mother cells.
• A goldmine of liverworts is in the western Himalayas.
• True mosses Funaria (cord moss),Sphagnum (Peat or Bog or Turf mosses) Polytrichum (Hair cap moss) Pogonatum (Maiden hair moss) Tortula (Twisted moss).
• Fossil bryophytes have been recorded from tertiary beds in the Cenozoic era Example Mucorales, and Jungermanniales.
• Outer, larger peristome teeth are hygroscopic in nature and inner, smaller are non-hygroscopic.
• Elaters are hygroscopic because of peculiar thickening and their movements loosen the spore masses which are discharged and dispersed by air.
• Sphagnum is commonly called bog moss peat moss or turf moss as it can convert into bogs because of its creeping nature.
• It is true moss. With this development the water of bogs becomes acidic (pH 3.7 or lower), followed by compression from plants on the top leading to the development of dark-colored peat which can be used as fuel on drying.
• The sporophytic stage of bryophytes is generally made up of foot, seta, and capsule and Ricca (a liverwort) has only capsule.
• Sphagonal used is for skin disorders extracted from Sphagnum.
• Elaters exhibit xerochasy.
• Funaria is also known as cord moss.
• A capsule of Marchantia forms about 3,000,000 spores.
• Pogonatum sporogonium is without apophysis.
• The flat roof of the columella is called the epiphragm.
• The central sterile column of the capsule is called the columella.
• Bryophytes are non-vascular plants with multicellular sex organs.
• An erect gametophyte of bryophyte is called a gametophore.
• Sterile hairs mixed with sex organs are called paraphyses.
• The most complete fossil among Bryophytes -Naiadita lanceolate
• Leaves of funaria are one cell thick In moss capsule peristome teeth are 32 and arranged in two rows.
• Synoicous—Bryophytes in which male and female sex organs are intermixed on the same plant.
• More stomata are present in apophysis, less in theca, and are absent in operculum.
• In bryophytes, rhizoids are mostly tuberculate and may be smooth, (eg. Riccia)
• In Funaria after fertilization the female branch becomes erect and the male branch is hence pushed to a side.
• In Hepaticeae the sex organs are embedded in thallus.
• Antheridia and archegonia are enclosed by multicellular sterile jackets.
• In T. S. the stem shows a continued strand in the center outside which lies the cortex.
• Outer layers of the cortex have chloroplast.
• Leaves of Funaria are sessile and are analogous to real leaves of higher plants.
• Rhizoids of Funaria are non-green and help in vegetative reproduction.
• Paraphysis are unbranched, green multicellular thread¬ structure intermixed with antheridia and archegonia.
• The paraphysis of the male branch is knobbed and the female branch is not pointed.
• Paraphysis prepares food and absorbs water for sex organs.
• The Epidermis of the apophysis of the capsule is provided with stomata.
• Capsule is a partial parasite on gametophytes. Hypodermis is 2 cells thick.
• Just below the lid or operculum, a perforate disc of thin-walled cells extends from the epidermis to the columella called as diaphragm.

Bryophyta NEET Mcqs

NEET Biology Plant Kingdom Bryophyta Questions From Competitive Examinations

Question 1. Female sex organs of bryophytes are called:

1. Oogonia
2. Ascogonia
3. Archegonia
4. Antheridia.

Answer: 3. Archegonia

Question 2. The term bryophyta was coined by:

1. Iyengar
2. Linnaeus
3. Braun
4. Bentham.

Answer: 3. Braun

Question 3. Apopliysis occurs in:

1. Marchantia
2. Pteridium
3. Apocyanaceae
4. Mosses.

Answer: 4. Mosses.

Question 4. Moss sporophyte does not possess:

1. Flaters
2. Seta
3. Foot
4. Columella.

Answer: 1. Flaters

Question 5. Thallus of riccia is :

1. Haploid
2. Diploid
3. Triploid
4. Tetraploid.

Answer: 1. Haploid

Bryophyta NEET Exam Preparation

Question 6. Bryophytes have :

1. Archegonia
2. Dominant gametophytic and parasitic sporophytic phases
3. Thalloid plant body
4. A11 the above.

Answer: 4. A11 the above.

Question 7. In funeral, calyptra is formed from :

1. Capsule
2. Archegonium
3. Columella
4. Antheridium.

Answer: 2. Archegonium

Question 8. In bryophytes, the adult plant body is :

1. Epiphyte
2. Sporophyte
3. Gametophyte
4. Sporophyll.

Answer: 3. Gametophyte

Question 9. Which of the following pair of plants is not a seed producer?

1. Funaria and ficus
2. Funaria and fern
3. Puccinia and pinus
4. Ficus and chlamydomonas.

Choose the wrong pair :

1. Heapiicopsida – Marchantia
2. Lycopsida – selaginella
3. Bryopsida – anthoceros
4. Pteropsida – dryopteris
5. Sphenopsida – equisetum.

Answer: 2. Lycopsida – selaginella

Question 10. Archegoniophore is present in :

1. Marchantia
2. Chara
3. Adiantum
4. Funaria.

Answer: 3. Adiantum

Bryophyta NEET Exam Preparation

Question 11. Read the following statements and answer the question which follows them.

1. In liverworts, mosses, and fems gametophytes are free-living
2. Gymnosperms and some fems are hetero sperms and some fems are heterosporous
3. Sexual reproduction is in focus, volvox and Albugo are oogamous
4. The sporophyte in liverworts is more elaborate than that in mosses
5. Both pinus and Marchantia are dioecious

Answer: 1. In liverworts, mosses, and fems gametophytes are free-living

Question 12. How many of the above statements are correct?

1. Two
2. Three
3. Four
4. One

Answer: 2. Three

NEET Biology Kingdom Fungi Features Of Fungi

This division comprises more than 100,000 species of fungi and has representation in almost every available habitat on earth and many fungi are of major economic or medical significance to man.

1. They are composed of moulds, yeast, mushrooms, puffballs and toadstools.
2. Fungi are found in almost all types of habitats. Many species of phycomycetes are found in water and are called aquatic fungi.
3. Fungi are well adapted to the environment and nutrition. They grow in a wide range of temperatures and pH.
4. Psychrophilic fungi grow at and below freezing point while thermophilic fungi remain viable even at 62°C.
5. Most of the fungi grow well in acidic pH between 5 — 6-5 pH. Light is generally not essential for the growth of fungi.
6. The fungi are achlorophyllous non-vascular thallophytes.
7. Their mode of nutrition is either saprophytic, parasitic or symbiotic.
8. 5 Fungi are dimorphic. Some pathogenic fungi of humans and other animals have a unicellular and yeast-like form in their hosts but when they grow saprobically in the soil they have filamentous bodies Example Blastomyces dermatitis.
9. The thallus is very simple and may be unicellular (yeast ) or consists of a network of hyphae called mycelium. The mycelium may be aseptate and coenocytic (Rhizopus) or septate as in Penicillium, Agaricus etc.
10. The reserve food material is in the form of glycogen and oil droplets.
11. Their mode of reproduction is vegetative by fragmentation, and asexual by formation of conidia, oidia, zoospores and chlamydospores.
12. Sexual reproduction is oogamous in lower forms (Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes), by somatogamy in higher forms (Basidiomycetes) and is absent in deuteromycetes. So fungi show a reduction in sexuality.

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Kingdom Fungi NEET Notes

Sexual reproduction transpires through isogamy, anisogamy, heterogamy, gametangial contact, gametangial copulation, spermatization, and somatogamy. Somatogamy can be classified as pseudogamous, monogamous, or adelphogamous.

Three mycelial phases exist—dikaryotic, diploid, and haploid—due to distinct nuclear processes: plasmogamy, karyogamy, and meiosis.

NEET Biology Kingdom Fungi Classification Of Fungi

NEET Biology Kingdom Fungi Oomycota

This group includes fungi with aseptate mycelium. These are lower fungi. This group is further divided into phycomycetes and zygomycetes. Phycomyceles. = Oomycetes = Algal fungi = Egg fungi.

They are popularly called algal fungi because they bear a striking resemblance to some algae ( Vaucheria) in the morphology of the thallus. The thallus ranges from unicellular to a profusely branched filamentous mycelium which is coenocytic.

Asexual reproduction takes place by sporangiospores equivalent to conidia often called conidiosporangia. Sexual reproduction is mainly by gametangia contact when present is isogamous or heterogamous.

Karyogamy generally follows plasmogamy so there is no dikaryophase in the life cycle. Common examples are black moulds, pink moulds, white rust, Phytophthora and downy mildews. Zygomycetes (conjugation fungi)

1. These are saprophytic or parasitic fungi and can be grown on a culture medium.
2. During life history a diploid resting spore called zygospore is produced by conjugation, hence the name of the group is zygomycetes.
3. Mycelium is coenocytic.
4. Hyphae are non-septate and haploid.
5. Hyphae produce aerial branches called sporangiophores bearing sporangia at the tip of hyphae which produces non-motile spores.

1. Squinting Fungus.

Pilobolus crystallinus is a coprophilous or dung mould.

2. Rhizopus and Mucor.

Bread Mould (Rhizopus stolonifer) Rhizopus is a saprophytic fungus. Mycelium is made up of rhizoidal hyphae meant for attachment and absorption of food and water, stoloniferous hyphae which bear at nodes vertically a group of aerial hyphae called sporangiophores.

Hyphae are aseptate and coenocytic. It has many nuclei and reserves food in the form of oil and glycogen.

• The life cycle is of Haplontic type.
• Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation.
• Asexual reproduction. Under favourable conditions, sporangia is borne on sporangiophores.

Each sporangium has a central dome-shaped columella and many multinucleate sporangiospores. Sporangiospore on dispersal to other substratum again produces new mycelium.

Kingdom Fungi NEET Study Material

Sexual reproduction. It occurs at the end of the growing season under unfavourable conditions. Sexual reproduction employs the conjugation of two gametangia resulting in the formation of azygospore.

Zygospore (2N) is the only diploid structure zygospore wall breaks so there is the formation of promycelium. Then a germ sporangium develops at the tip of the promycelium. This germ sporangium develops uninucleate haploid meiospores known as germ spores. So life cycle is haplontic.

NEET Biology Kingdom Fungi Eumycota

Ascomycetes. They are also called Sac fungi characterised by the presence of ascus in which usually 8 ascospores are produced. Many asci are grouped to form a fructification called ascocarp which is of 4 types viz.

Cleistothecium (closed ) Example Penicillium

Apothecium ( open cup-shaped ) Example Peziza and

Perithecium (flask-shaped) with pore called ostiole Example Clavicepspurpurea.

Ascostroma – cushion-like and chambered, locules separated by stroma and having asci. Yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae).

It is commonly employed in bread making and beer brewing and is also called brewer’s or baker’s yeast. It is unicellular ascomycetes.

It consists of a mass of protoplast surrounded by a cell wall. The protoplast has stored foods in the form of glycogen, fat and volutin granules.

The nucleus is situated on one side of the vacuole. Asexual reproduction is by budding and fission Example A small protuberance arises which gradually increases in size.

It is known as bud. Meanwhile, the nucleus of the mother cell divides mitotically and migrates into an enlarged bud.

In this way, a large number, of buds are formed in a chain. Sexual reproduction is by conjugation of two yeast cells.

Yeast may be homothallic or heterothallic. The diploid cell may multiply by budding or it may produce ascospores. There are two stages, haploid and diploid which regularly alternate with each other.

So in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the life cycle is the haplodiplontic type and haplontic in Schizosaccharomyces homosporous and diplontic Example Saccharomycodes Ludwig. Yeasts are used in baking, as food and in the alcohol industry.

Basidiomycetes. These are also called club fungi (due to Basidium) characterised by the presence of complicated fruiting bodies called basidiocarps. They bear reproductive structures called basidia.

Each basidium produces four basidiospores exogenously. The common examples are the smuts, rusts, the toadstools and puffballs. Mushroom.

Agaricus campestris is the most common form of mushroom which being edible is also cultivated. In Punjab, it is called Dhingari. Basidiospores are produced in a reproductive structure called basidiocarp which is differentiated into a stalk called a stipe and a cap-like structure called pileus.

Basidiospores germinate to form primary mycelium which is of short duration.

Then there is somatogamy in two different strains resulting in the formation of dikaryotic mycelium. On the mycelium are produced ring fruiting bodies (basidiocarps) also called fairy rings.

In each basidiocarp are produced club-shaped basidia in hymenium layers of gills which are present in pileus. Gills bear numerous basidia and paraphyses. Each basidium is club-shaped and produces four basidiospores exogenously, basidiospores are borne on stalk-like structures called sterigmata.

Kingdom Fungi NEET Question Bank

Basidiospores on dispersal again produce haploid or monokaryotic primary mycelium. Thus completing the life cycle in which there is a monokaryotic phase (primary mycelium) eukaryotic phase, and diplophase (only represented by basidium). Deuteromycetes.

These are also called “ Fungi Imperfecti” as the sexual stage is not found. The conidial stage is similar to the conidial stage of ascomycetes.

The fungi of this class cause many diseases of plants Example Colletotrichumfalcatum causes red rot of sugarcane. Deuteromycetes, Helminthosporium, Alternarici, Fusarium.

NEET Biology Kingdom Fungi Useful Terms

Clamp Connection. It is a small looped hypha which develops at the time of cell division and septa formation in the dikaryon of basidiomycetous fungus.

Cleistothecium. Closed ascocarp is termed cleistothecium. Eucarpic. When only a part of the thallus is used for the formation of reproductive bodies.

Holocarpic. Cells which is completely converted into reproductive structures. Dolipore septum. It is a complex pore in the septum of the hypha of a basidiomycetous fungus.

Diplanctism. The successive production of two different types of zoospores by a single fungal organism is termed as diplanetism Example Saprolegnia.

Mycobiont. Fungus partner of lichen. Parasexuality.

It was first reported by Pontecarvo and Roper in 1952 in Aspergillus nidulans and the imperfect stage of Einericella nidulans. Some fungi have genetic recombination of a type which is different from the normal sexual type. This other than sexual mode of reproduction is called parasexuality.

Predaceous fungi. These are animal trapping Examples Dactylella, and Arthrobotrys (belong to deuteromycetes). They capture small insects such as eelworms, rotifers, and protozoans and use them as food Rust. Fungal genera of Uredinales cause dark spots on the stems and leaves of hosts, for example, Puccinia.

Smut. Fungal genera of Ustilaginales produce a large number of black dusty spores (chlamydospores), ExampleUstilago.

Zygospores. These are thick-walled spores of zygomycetous fungi formed after the fusion of two gametangia.

Plectenchyma. When the mycelium gets organised into loosely or compacdy woven tissue-like structures.

Pseudoparenchyma. Mycelium in which the hyphae are very closely packed to lose their identity.

Perithecium A type of ascocarp which is flask-shaped and bears a pore through which ascospores are discharged, for Example, neurospora or cells. Somatogamy Fusion of two somatic hyphae.

Heterothallism. It was discovered by A.I. Blakeslee. He found two types of species in Mucorales and designated them as homothallic and heterothallic types.

In homothallic species, a zygospore is formed by conjugation of hyphae produced from a single mycelium Example R.sexualis. In the heterothallic species Example, R. stolonifer zygospore is not formed if two hyphae are produced from a single mycelium.

In these species, sexual union occurs only between two different mycelia considered as (+) and (-) strains. (+) and (-) strains are alike morphologically but differ physiologically. This is known as heterothallism.

The heterothallism may be morphological or physiological. Heterothallic fungi may be bipolar or tetrapolar. In bipolar species, there is only one pair of compatibility factors whereas in tetrapolar species there are two pairs of genetic factors.

Heterothalism is a device to prevent inbreeding and promote outbreeding. The haploid fungi reproduce asexually by producing a large number of mitospores. These spores germinate and give rise to new individuals.

All these individuals are genetically identical as they are formed from the same parent fungus by mitosis.

Kingdom Fungi NEET Mcqs

Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes and meiosis. Homothallic species reproduce sexually by fusion of gametes produced from two gametangia having almost similar genetic constituents (i.e., inbreeding) and, therefore, have fewer chances of genetic variation among the offspring.

Heterothallic species, on the other hand, ensure a combination of two gametes belonging to genetically different individuals (i.e., outbreeding) which results in greater genetic variation among the offspring so that they can withstand abnormal environmental conditions and adapt themselves in different substrata. Therefore, heterothallism is a device to prevent inbreeding and promote outbreeding.

NEET Biology Kingdom Fungi Economic Importance Of Fung

1. As Food, Yeast is used because it contains about 50% protein. Yeast protein is called single-cell protein.
2. Agaricus bisporous, Volvaria and Lentinus elodus are some edible mushrooms.
3. Research Tools. Neurospora and Physarum are used in several genetics and biochemistry experiments.
4. Antibiotics. Penicillin ( from Penicillium nolatum and P. chrysogenum), and griseofulvin ( from Penicillium griseofulvum), are some antibiotics obtained from fungi).
5. Acids. Several organic acids are produced from species of Rliizopus, Aspergillus, Mucor, etc.
6. Hormones. Gibberellin is obtained from Giberellafujikuroi.
7. Vitamins. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and other yeasts are good sources of vitamin B- ) complex and riboflavin.
8. Spoilage of food grains. Rliizopus, Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicillium, etc. are spoiling agents of food grains, fruits etc.
   • Poisonous fungi. Amanita phalloides, A. verna and Boletus satavus are highly poisonous fungi. Coprinus, Psilocybe and Incocybe are also poisonous. Amanitaphalloides is called “Death cup”.
9. Some fungi are extremely poisonous. For example- Amanita phalloides (death cup) produces poisonous toxins like a-amanitin, phalloidin, etc., which stop the synthesis of mRNA.
   • Sclerotia of the fungus Claviceps purpurea contains many poisonous alkaloids which cause poisoning in human beings. The acute condition of such poisoning is called ‘St. Anthony’s fire’, Helvetia (saddle fungus) is a poisonous cup fungus and can be fatal if consumed.
10. Toxins and aflatoxins. Amanitaphalloides, A. vema, Clavicepspurpurea, Aspergillus flavus, etc. produce toxins and aflatoxins.
    • Some fungi contaminate our food and secrete toxins. These toxins are called mycotoxins. They are very harmful and cause illness when such contaminated food is consumed. Some of the important mycotoxins are.
    • Aflatoxins are produced by Aspergillusflavus and related strains. Some of these are carcinogenic.
    • Amatoxins and Phallotoxins are produced by the mushroom- Amanita phalloides (death cup).
    • Coprine is produced by the edible mushroom Coprinus atramentanius.
    • Ochratoxins are produced by Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium viridicatum.
    • Trichothecenes are produced by species of Fusarium, Cephalosporium, Trichoderma, etc.
    • Zearalenone is produced by species of Fusarium.
11. Hallucinogenic drugs. Psilocybe mexicana, Amanita in sharia, Incocybe, etc. are some fungi which produce some hallucinogenic drugs, responsible for nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and even death. LSD is obtained from fungus, Claviceps purpurea.
12. Lichens used in medicines. Jaundice, hydrophobia, lung diseases.
    • Lichens as a source of dyes
    • Other uses
    • Nitrogen fixation by yeasts like Saccharomyces and Rhodotorula
    • Production of latex by Mycena galopus.
    • Soil building by Rhizopus, Cladosporium, Aspergillus etc.
    • Along with bacteria, fungi work as decomposers.
    • Biological control of growth of hyperparasites like insects, nematodes, bacteria and even other fungi.
    • Neurospora is good research material for geneticists and Physarum for molecular biologists for the study of DNA.

NEET Biology Kingdom Fungi Lichens

Lichens are a distinct assemblage of intriguing organisms that coexist with mosses on tree trunks and rocks. Lichen is a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and an alga.

• The fungal element is referred to as mycobiont, whereas the algal element is termed phycobiont.
• Lichen is a symbiotic relationship between algae and fungi, with the algae potentially being blue-green or green in color.
• Algae synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water, whereas fungi assimilate water and minerals.
• Lichens are fundamentally categorized into three types: Crustose lichens. The thallus is planar and creates a crust on rock, exemplified by Graphic scripta, Haemotoma puniceum, Lecanora, and Rhizocarpon.
• Foliose lichens are broad and leaf-like, exhibiting lobed structures; examples include Parmelia, Xanthoria, and Physcia. Fruticose lichens.
• They exhibit extensive branching akin to shrubs and are affixed to the substrate via a disc. The branches produce reproductive structures known as apothecia. Usnea, Cladonia exemplars.
• Asexual reproduction occurs by the use of soredia. Lichens serve as markers of atmospheric pollution.
• Certain lichens are used in pharmaceuticals and as sustenance. Lichens are crucial in soil formation, facilitating succession on a rock known as xerosere.

Old Classification of Lichens based on Habitat

1. Terricolous —Growing on soil Example Lecidea, Cladonia.Floerkeana
2. Saxiscolous —Growing on rocky substrata Examples Dermatocarpon, Porina, Xanthoria
3. Corticolous—Growing on wood bark Example Usnea, Parmelia.
4. Lignicolous — Developing on wood Example Cyphelium

NEET Biology Kingdom Fungi Economic Importance Of Lichens

1. Beneficial Activities
   • Early colonizer. Lichens are the pioneers of plant growth on bare rocks and are called first colonizers.
2. Soil builder.
   • The lichens are pioneers of vegetation in a lithosere ( succession on rocky surface). They bring about the biological weathering of rocks by forming acids such as carbonic acid, oxalic acid, etc., which leads to soil formation.
3. Food.
   • Some lichens are a valuable source of food for wild animals and cattle.
   • Cladonia rangiferina growing to a height of about 30 cm, in the arctic regions, serves as food for Reindeer, hence called ‘reindeer-moss’.
   • Certaria islandica is used as a food article in Iceland (hence called ‘Iceland moss’), Sweden and Norway.
   • Lecanora esculenta is used as food in Israel.
   • Enocarpon miniatum is used as a vegetable in Japan.
   • Umblicaria esculenta is used as food in Japan.
   • Parmelia, generally called rathapu in Telugu is used as a spice in curry (curry powder ) in South India and it is also used as a food, as well as in making chocolates and pastries.
   • Species of Stereocaulon and Evemia are also used as fodder.
4. Medicinal uses
   • Cladonia pyxidata is used in the treatment of whooping cough.
   • Pannelia permata is used in the treatment of snakebites.
   • Parmelia sexatilis is used in the treatment of epilepsy.
   • Lobaria purmelia is used in the treatment of lung diseases.
   • Evemia and Usnea are used in the treatment of haemorrhage
   • Usnea barbata is used in the treatment of urinary diseases.
   • Some species of Usnea and Cladonia are used to extract an antibiotic called usnic acid which has antibacterial activity and has proved very effective against tuberculosis when used in combination with streptomycin.
   • Peltigera and Black pepper are used in the treatment of rabies.
   • Peltigera canina is used in the treatment of hydrophobia and liver ailments.
   • Cetraria islandica is used in the treatment of diabetes and respiratory diseases.
   • Rocella montagnei is used in the treatment of angina.
   • Cladonia, Rocella and Evemia are used in controlling different types of fevers.
   • The protolichesterinic acid obtained from some lichens has anticarcinogenic properties.
5. Industrial uses
   • The lichens contain carbohydrates in the form of lichenin. Hence, they are used in producing alcohol in countries like Sweden and Russia.
   • Species of Evemia, Pseudomia, and Ramalina contain essential oils and hence they are used in the manufacture of soaps and perfumes. Besides, they also contain chemicals like geraniol, naphthalene, etc.
   • A red dye is obtained from the Ochrolechia species.
   • A brown dye is obtained from Parmelia species.
   • A dye orchill is prepared from Rocella tinctoria.
   • Another brilliant colouring dye is, cud-bear obtained from lichen species.
   • Litmus used as an acid-base indicator is obtained from Rocella Montagne and Lasallia pustulate.
   • Indicator of air pollution. Lichens act as an indicator of air pollution because no lichen can be found in areas of heavy industrial pollution. After all, lichens are sensitive to S02.
   • Njfixation. Lichens having blue-green algae are important in fixing nitrogen.
   • Chemicals. Some lichen yields important chemicals. For example:
   • Ramalina siliquosa yield salzinic acid.
   • Parmelia subtrudecta yield lecanoric acid.
   • Cladonia crispate yields squamatic acid.
   • Religious importance. Sweet-scented thalli of lichens like Evemia and Ramalina are used in the preparation of ‘ dhup’ and ‘hawan samagris’.

Kingdom Fungi NEET Exam Preparation Medium

Harmful Activities

1. Damaging buildings. In humid areas, lichen can grow on window panes, marble and cement damaging the building by their etching activity.
2. Poisonous. Some lichens are poisonous, such as Letharia vulpina due to vulpinic acid, Cetraria juniperina due to pinastrinic acid, Parmelia molluscum due to selenium, Xanthoria parietina due to beryllium and Evemiafutjuracea due to chlorine.
3. In deuteromycetes or fungi imperfectii sexual reproduction is absent or yet to be discovered.
4. A few important members of Deuteromycetes are :
   • Colletotrichumfalcatum causes red rot of sugarcane.
   • Helminthosporium oryzae causes brown leaf spot disease in rice.
   • Altemaria solani causes early blight disease of potato and tomato.
   • Cercospora personata causing tikka disease.
   • Fusarium oxysporium causing wilt disease.
   • Fusarium moniliforma causes balance disease of rice and releases gibberellins.

1. Fungal tissue is called plectenchyma which is formed due to well-organised hyphae either forming parallel called prosenchyma or giving the appearance of parenchyma of higher plants called pseudoparenchyma.
2. In liquid media, particularly in the presence of a high concentration of sugar the hyphae become segmented like in yeast called as torula stage.
3. Aflatoxins, a type of mycotoxin was discovered in 1961 in Aspergillusflavin and later on in many other members.
4. Morchella is morel or sponge mushroom and is highly-priced for their delicacies.
5. In 1845-1860 a million people died in Ireland alone due to the destruction of potato crops by Phytophthora infestans. This famine led to the discovery of plant pathology.
6. Most parasitic fungi are autoecious except rust. Puccinia is heteroecious as it requires two hosts after its life cycle, i.e. wheat (primary host) and barberry. (secondary host).
7. Thiamine (Vit. B) produced by Saccharomyces cerevisiae Riboflavin by Saccharomyces cerevisiae Vit B12 Eremothecum ashbyic YitaminsPhodatarala gracilis Keratimophilic Fungio Grown on nails, feathers, hairs, hoofs.
8. Fungi growing on
9. Tree bark = Carticolous
10. Dungwood = Cophoprhilous
11. Burnt wood = ep xylic and xerophilous
12. “Lomasomes” or “plasmoalemmasomes” are some membranous structures found in between the plasmalemma and cell wall of some fungi. Chlorophyll is absent in all fungi.
13. Yeast is also called sugar fungus or Zuckerpilz. Neurospora crassa was regarded as Drosophila of the plant kingdom.
14. Largest fungus. Giant puffball Parmelia lichen is called Rock flower. Cladonia is known as Reindeer moss. Pethigera is called dog lichen.
15. Coprinus comatus (Basidiomycetes) fungus is used in making ink (from gills). So it is called an Inky Cap mushroom.
16. In fungi vesicular structures that develop from cell membranes are called lomasomes. They are found in between the cell wall and cell membrane and help in the elaboration of the cell wall.
17. Some fungi emit light and are called luminescent fungi. These fungi have luciferase enzyme which acts on luciferin in the presence of oxygen, for example, Xylaria hypoxylon, Panus sp, and Arrnillaria mallet. Fossil fungi are Mucarites combrensis, Agarites wardens, and Penicillites curtipes.
18. The fungi which grow in trees are called lignicolous fungi Example Polyporus, and Trametes.
19. Heterothallism was discovered by Blakeslee in the species of Mucor. It refers to the sexual union between hyphae of opposite strains. Homothallic mycelia are self-fertile.

NEET Biology Kingdom Fungi Quanta to Memory

1. The fungi which grow on dung are called Coprophilous fungi eg. Mucor media, Pilaria, and Pilobolus.
2. Famous Irish Famine caused by: Late blight of potato Fungus Phallus unpicks is a member of Basidiomycetes is a dead man’s finger.
3. Hydnum is a member of articles called tooth fungus.
4. In Deuteromycetes Parasexuality is an alternative method of sexual reproduction
5. Phycomycetes are called algal fungi or lower fungi.
6. The torula stage is the budding of oidia in a sugary solution.
7. About 2300 antibiotics have been discovered so far from various fungi. Of these, some 123 have been extracted from Penicillium and 115 from Aspergillus.
8. The best work on fungi produced so far is ‘Silloge Fungorum’ by Saccardo. The work on Puccinia, Penicillium and Neurospora aroused interest in this branch.
9. Several mycotoxins (aflatoxins, zearalenone, ochratoxins, trichothecenes) are produced by fungi.
10. Many forms (For example, Amanita phalloids) are poisonous.
11. Cleviceps purpurea causes ergotism. It also yields a hallucinogenic drug called L. S. D. Rotting of wood (Polyporss, Fomes, Ganoderma), allergies (Mucor, Aspergillus etc.) deterioration of articles (Cladisporium, Altemaria, Chaetomium) is caused by many forms.
12. Several forms are eaten as food Example, Agaricus and Morchella. Yeast cakes, incaparina, SCP etc. are edible products obtained from yeasts. Penicillium sp. is used for flavouring cheese. Yeasts are used in brewing and baking.
13. Aspergillus causes Aspergillosis in human beings. A pheromone is a substance secreted to the outside by an individual and received by a second individual of the same species in which it induces a specific reaction Example a definite behaviour i.e. fusion of two yeast cells during sexual reproduction.

NEET Biology Kingdom Fungi Questions For Competitive Examinations

Question 1. Which one of the following is a harmful lichen?

1. Umbilicaria
2. Letharia
3. Usnea
4. Caledonia.

Answer: 2. Letharia

Question 2. Mycorrhizal association occurs in pinus, ficus and :

1. Utricularia
2. Legumes
3. Eucalyptus
4. Azadirachta.

Answer: 3. Eucalyptus

Question 3. The collateral host is:

1. Additional host
2. Host in which life cycle is completed
3. Alternate host
4. Infected host.

Answer: 1. Additional host

Question 4. Sexual reproduction is absent in :

1. Deuteromycetes
2. Phycomycetes
3. Ascomycetes
4. Basidiomycetes.

Answer: 1. Deuteromycetes

Kingdom Fungi NEET Previous Year Questions

Question 5. In an ascus of ascomycetes, the number and arrangement of ascospores are:

1. 8 In linear order
2. 4 In linear order
3. Both a and b
4. 8 Or 4, linear order or unordered.

Answer: 4. 8 Or 4, linear order or unordered.

Question 6. Mycelium of mucor/rhizopus is :

1. Aseptate and unicellular
2. Septate and unicellular
3. Septate and multicellular
4. Coenocytic.

Answer: 4. Coenocytic.

Question 7. Fungi are always:

1. Heterotrophs
2. Saprophytes
3. Parasites
4. Autotrophs.

Answer: 1. Heterotrophs

Question 8. Which of the following produces aflatoxin?

1. Viruses
2. Bacteria
3. Fungi
4. Nematodes.

Answer: 3. Fungi

Question 9. An example of an obligate anaerobe is :

1. Clostridium
2. Hiv
3. Aspergillus sp
4. Penicillium notatum

Answer: 1. Clostridium

Question 10. An adhesive pad of fungi penetrates the host with the help of:

1. Mechanical pressure and enzymes
2. Hooks and suckers
3. Softening by enzymes
4. Only by mechanical pressure.

Answer: 1. Mechanical pressure and enzymes

Question 11. One of the following attacks inflorescence and grains equally :

1. Loose smut of wheat
2. Covered smut of barley
3. Com smut
4. Late blight of potato.

Answer: 1. Loose smut of wheat

Question 12. Which of the following fungi releases mycotoxin in stored rice grains?

1. Aspergillus
2. Altemaria
3. Fusariurn moniliforme
4. Penicillium.

Answer: 1. Aspergillus

Question 13. Match the disease and causative agent

1. A-1,B-2,3-3,4-4
2. A-4,B-3,3-2,4-1
3. A-2,B-3,3-4,4-1
4. A-4,B-2,3-1,4-1

Answer: 2. A-4,B-3,3-2,4-1

Question 15. Lichen growing on wood is called :

1. Saxicolous
2. Terricolous
3. Corticolous
4. Lignocolous.

Answer: 4. Lignocolous.

Question 16. A fungal filament system is known as mycelium, but pseudo mycelium is formed in:

1. Yeast
2. Rhizopus
3. Aspergillus
4. Synchytrium.

Answer: 1. Yeast

Question 17. The causal agent of red rot of sugarcane is

1. Helminthosporium
2. Fusarium
3. Pythium
4. Colletotrichlim.

Answer: 4. Colletotrichlim.

Kingdom Fungi NEET Notes

Question 18. White rust of crucifers is :

1. Puccinia graminis
2. Ustilago tritici
3. Albugo candida
4. Aspergillus flavus

Answer: 3. Albugo candida

Question 19. Among rust, smut and mushrooms all three :

1. Are pathogens
2. Are saprobes
3. Bear ascocarps
4. Bear basidiocarps.

Answer: 1. Are pathogens

Question 20. Which of the following environmental conditions are essential for optimum growth of mucor on a piece of bread?

1. Temperature of about 25°c
2. Temperature of about 5°c
3. Relative humidity of about 5%.
4. Relative humidity of about 95%
5. A shady place
6. A brightly illuminated place

Choose the answer from the following options :

1. 2, 2 and 5 only
2. 2, 3 and 6 only
3. 1, 3 and 5 only
4. 1, 4 and 5 only.

Answer: 4. 1, 4 and 5 only.

Question 21. Yeast and algae are the main sources of

1. Vitamin b complex
2. Vitamin c
3. Minerals
4. Vitamin k.

Answer: 2. Vitamin c

Question 22. Red rot of sugarcane and white rust of radish are respectively caused by:

1. Albugo candida and cercospora
2. Colletotrichum and fusarium 28.
3. Pythium and phytophthora
4. Albugo candida and puccinia graminis
5. Colletotrichum and albugo candida

Answer: 5. Colletotrichum and Albugo candida

Question 23. Azolla increases soil fertility of:

1. Maize
2. Barley
3. Rice
4. Wheat.

Answer: 3. Rice

Question 24. Identify from the following examples, a fungus which is of medicinal importance.

1. Agaricus
2. Saccharomyces
3. Penicillium
4. Cercospora.

Answer: 3. Pehicillium

Question 25. Which pair of the following belongs to basidiomy- cetes?

1. Pufballs and claviceps
2. Peziza and stinkhorns
3. Morchella and mushrooms
4. Birds’ nest fungi and puffballs.

Answer: 4. Birds’ nest fungi and puffballs.

Question 26. Ergot of rye is caused by a species of:

1. Uncinula
2. Ustilago
3. Claviceps
4. Phytophthora.

Answer: 3. Claviceps

Question 27. Deuteromycetes are called imperfect fungi due to :

1. Lack of cell wall
2. Lack of sexual reproduction
3. Lack of asexual reproduction
4. Lack of vacuoles.

Answer: 2. Lack of sexual reproduction

Question 28. Select the wrong statement:

1. Anisogametes differ either in structure, function or behaviour
2. In oomycetes female gamete is smaller and motile, while the male gamete is larger and non-motile
3. Chlamydomonas exhibits both isogamy and anisogamy and the focus shows oogamy
4. Isogametes are similar in structure, function and behaviour.

Answer: 2. In oomycetes female gamete is smaller and motile, while the male gamete is larger and non-motile

NEET Biology Kingdom Protista

Protists show remarkable variations in cell organization, patterns of cell division and life cycle. The occurrence of organisms with flexible lifestyles justifies the erection of the intermediate eukaryotic kingdom.

Characters of Protists

1. This kingdom includes diverse kinds of mostly unicellular and primarily aquatic eukaryotes.
2. They are eukaryotic organisms having typical eukaryotic cell organelles such as nuclei, mitochondria, ER, Golgi bodies, plastids etc.
3. The mode of nutrition is absorptive, ingestive or photo-autotrophic.
4. Mostly bear eukaryotic flagella composed of 9 + 2 internal microtubular structures.
5. Protists may be motile or non-motile. Protists show mainly three types of mechanisms
   of locomotion.
6. Sarcodine protists move with the help of pseudopodia. Flagellate protists move with the help of flagella and in other groups of ciliata locomotion is with the help of short-sized, hair-like cilia.
7. They may be haploid or diploid.
8. Reproduction is asexual as well as sexual.
9. Asexual reproduction occurs by binary or multiple fission or spore formation. It
   involves mitosis only. Sexual reproduction in protists involves syngamy and meiosis.
10. They may show zygotic meiosis or gametic meiosis.

Read and Learn More NEET Biology Notes

Major Groups of Protists Dinoflagellates (Pyrrophyta)

• They have two distinct unequal flagella. The cell wall is divided into plates. They reproduce asexually.
• Some are phosphorescent. Dinoflagellates are unicellular, photosynthetic protists which store starch or oils as their reserve food material.
• These are brown-red (due to xanthophyll pigment) and are characterised by the presence of a transverse groove (girdle) which divides the cell into two semi-cells.
• The cellulosic cell walls sometimes form structured plates called theca, conferring upon them an armoured appearance.
• Out of the two flagella emerging from the groove, one lies in the longitudinal direction, while the other lies transversely in a furrow between the plates.
• Several dinoflagellates exhibit bioluminescence (fire algae). The species of Gonyaulax and other dinoflagellates produce toxic blooms (red tides) in the ocean.
• The toxins may get concentrated in the tissues of animals (shellfish, oysters etc.).
• Dinoflagellates exhibit some prokaryotic characteristics (absence of histone protein, simpler mitosis, centromere and spindle absent) as well as eukaryotic characters (cell organelles bounded by a membrane, 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules in flagella).
• Whorling Whips. Dinoflagellates, due to spinning caused by the activity of transverse flagellum (in cingulum/annulus) and longitudinal flagellum (in sulcus).
• Dinoflagellates, diatoms and euglena-like flagellates are protistan algae or photosynthetic protists. They account for over 80% of CO2 fixed in the biosphere.

Kingdom Protista NEET Notes

Diatoms

The diatoms are the major producers in the seas. They lack flagella. They float in water due to the presence of lipids in them. They have overlapping cell walls with deposition of silica. Their fossils are known as diatomaceous earth.

They are diploids and reproduce sexually as well as asexually. The main features of diatoms are:

1. Diatoms are unicellular, noh-flagellate golden-brown algae. Their cell wall (frustule) nude up of the overlapping halves (upper kitchen and lower hypothec) like a soap tvv |vtn divh. and impregnated with silica.
2. Reserve food material in diatoms is in the form of lipid/volutin. Light storage lipids keep the cell afloat.
3. Sperms of diatoms have a single whiplash flagellum.
4. The oil in vv hale blubber, in fish and shark liver oils are believed to be the condensates from oil droplets originally present in the diatoms.
5. The good walls of diatoms are resistant to natural degradation. Hence, huge deposits of diatom frustules (diatomaceous earth) occur in the world- which are powdered and used in toothpaste and metal polish.
6. Diatomaceous earth is also used as an absorbent for nitroglycerine to make explosives and for filtration of liquids, especially in sugar refineries.
7. The diatom cell walls have thicker and thinner areas producing a complex series of ‘markings’ on the cell surface.
8. Diatoms reproduce asexually by cell division which occurs more frequently during midnight or early morning hours.
9. In a population of diatoms, the average size goes down as the division progresses. The original size is restored by the auxospore formation.

Euglena-like flagellates (Euglenoids)

Euglena-like flagellates are found in freshwater. They are covered by a pellicle as the cell wall is absent. They bear one or two flagella. They have a myxotrophic mode of nutrition.

1. Euglenoids are naked (cell walls absent); 1/2/3 flagella arise from an invagination at the anterior end of the cell.
2. Pyrenosomes. In euglenoids, a chloroplast contains a proteinaceous body or pyrenoid.
3. The latter has a central clear area or pyrenophore with a disc-shaped pyrenosome on either side.
4. A paramylum shell is formed over it. Paramylum granules also occur freely in the cytoplasm.
5. Euglenoids show both plant-like and animal-like characteristics.
6. A photosensitive eye spot senses the intensity and direction of light and helps in phototactic.

Slime moulds

Slime moulds may be acellular or cellular. They glide as a mass of protoplasm on decaying vegetable matter, ingesting food particles. The moving strands of protoplasm are called plasmodium in acellular slime moulds and pseudoplasmodium in cellular slime moulds.

1. Cellular slime moulds (Example; Dictyostelium) are uninucleate, haploid, naked amoeboid a large number of these aggregate to form slug (pseudoplasmodium) — the cells of the slug behaving as one unit without losing their individuality. Hence, these exhibit a primitive type of multicellularity. There occurs a division of labour among the aggregating amoebae. This aggregation of individual cells coupled with the division of labour confers upon them die name ‘communal slime moulds’.
2. The acellular slime moulds are characterised by the presence of a multinucleate, free-living, naked amoeboid mass of protoplasm (plasmodium) which may be a minute, homogeneous protoplasmodium or divided into vein-like network (phaneroplasmodium Plmarum). Under dry conditions, the plasmodium gets transformed into sporangia. Thread-like sterile structures (papillitis the sporangia help in the dispersal of spores.
3. Slime moulds show both fungus-like (spore production) and animal-like (ingestive nutrition) characteristics.
4. The fructifications or fruiting bodies of slime moulds are of three types-
   1. Sporangia. One to several thousand sporangia develop on a single plasmodium.
   2. They may be stalked or sessile, globose, cylindrical or cup-shaped and variously sculptured.
   3. lasrnodiocarps. These are mostly sessile and develop around some of the main veins of plasmodium. They are variously shaped.
   4. Australia. They are large, sessile, globose or hemispherical structures that resemble a mass of fused sporangia.
   5. Capillitia Sterile threads in sporangia of acellular slime moulds for dispersal of spores.
   6. Communal Slime Moulds. Cellular slime moulds due to the formation of pseudoplasmodium by coming together of numerous myxamoebae.

Kingdom Protista NEET Study Material

Protozoan Protists

1. Protozoan protists are classified into four
2. Foraminifera (Example Globigerinare giant, multinucleate sarcodines protected by
   a many-chambered external shell made up of calcium carbonate.
3. These produce thread-like extensions (branched through the pores in the shells to capture their The fossils of foraminifers (shells) are usually found in the regions of the earth containing petroleum.
4. Radiolarians are giant multinucleated sarcodines (several cm. in diameter), having an internal skeleton of silica.
5. Helicozoans are beautiful, freshwater sarcodines covered by a shell of silica. These give out filopodia for capturing prey.
6. Sporozoans are parasitic protozoans which form spores e.g. Plasmodium (Malarial parasite.) They form spores as sporozoites at some stage of their life cycle.
7. Ciliates have cilia all over their body. Cilia are used for locomotion and feeding.
8. Ciliates have specialised organelles for performing a variety of their functions. The defence organelles flask-shaped, trichocysts are used to paralyse prey. Trichocysts also help in the anchorage of the ciliates during feeding.
9. Ciliates exhibit nuclear dimorphism i.e. micronucleus for reproduction and macronucleus for controlling body functions.
10. Binary fission is the main mode of reproduction. Some ciliates as Paramecium reproduce sexually by conjugation.
11. The fossils of foraminifers (shells) are usually found in the regions of the earth containing petroleum.
12. Radiolarians are giant multinucleated sarcodines (several cm. in diameter), having an internal skeleton of silica.
13. Helicozoans are beautiful, freshwater sarcodines covered by a shell of silica. These give out filopodia for capturing prey.
14. Sporozoans are parasitic protozoans which form spores e.g. Plasmodium (Malarial parasite.) They form spores as sporozoites at some stage of their life cycle.
15. Ciliates have cilia all over their body. Cilia are used for locomotion and feeding.
16. Ciliates have specialised organelles for performing a variety of their functions. The defence organelles flask-shaped, trichocysts are used to paralyse prey. Trichocysts also help in the anchorage of the ciliates during feeding.
17. Ciliates exhibit nuclear dimorphism i.e. micronucleus for reproduction and macronucleus for controlling body functions. Binary fission is the main mode of reproduction. Some ciliates as Paramecium reproduce sexually by conjugation.

NEET Biology Kingdom Protista Amoeba Proteus

Important points

1. Amoeba are living grey-coloured, asymmetrical protozoan with a size of about 0.25 to 0.60 mm long.
2. The body of an Amoeba is bounded by a single-layered, thin, elastic living membrane called a plasma membrane or plasmalemma.
3. The body consists of protoplasm differentiated into a centrally placed nucleus and cytoplasm. The cytoplasm consists of two distinct regions the outer ectoplasm and the inner endoplasm.
4. The ectoplasm is thin, clear and transparent. It is said to be protective in function.
5. Endoplasm is inner, granular translucent. The endoplasm can be differentiated into two regions by their physical nature i.e., an outer stiff viscid zone called plasma gel and inner more fluid called plasmasol.
6. The endoplasm contains a contractile vacuole, many food vacuoles, globules and crystals.
7. In amoeba process of digestion takes place first in an acidic medium and then in an alkaline medium.
8. Pseudopodia of amoeba are tipped by hyaline caps.
9. The contractile vacuole is a clear bubble-like spherical structure present in the outer part of the endoplasm meant for osmoregulation. Suspended in the endoplasm are endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, mitochondria, Golgi bodies and Iysosomes.
10. The nucleus is dense and disc-shaped. It is situated more or less near the centre. It is bounded by a nuclear membrane. Inside the nucleus lies nucleoplasm.
11. Scattered in the nucleoplasm are a large number of chromosomes. It also contains one or two nucleoli (Sing— Nucleolus). The nucleus controls the vital functions of life.
12. Locomotion with the help of pscudopodia.
13. The single-celled body performs all vital functions of life.
14. It has a holozoic mode of nutrition. Ingestion takes place by import, invagination, circumfluence and circumvallation. Digestion of food takes place inside food vacuoles.
15. Excretion and respiration take place on the general surface of the body.
16. Reproduction by asexual means only maybe by binary, multiple fission or
    sporulation.
17. Cyst formation during unfavourable periods also helps in dispersal.
18. Amoeba was first observed by R.R. Holf inI755, and H.I. Hirschfield described the details in 1862.

NEET Biology Kingdom Protista Entamoeba Histolytica

1. It is pathogenic, photo/oan and belongs to class Carolina (sarcosine)
2. It is a human parasite and inhabits the large intestine and lower part of the small intestine.
3. It feeds on erythrocytes and worn-out cells.
4. It is irregular in shape with a single blunt pseudopodium.
5. The contractile vacuole is absent.
6. A single rounded nucleus with a fine peripheral layer of chromatin granules and many food vacuoles present.
7. Reproduction is asexual.
8. The cysts are quadrinucleate.
9. Infection of human beings occurs by taking food and water contaminated with faecal matter containing cysts.
10. Entamoeba histolytica causes amoebic dysentery’ (enteritis).
11. It occurs in two forms, trophozoite form (magna form) and precystic form fminuta form).
12. Trophozoite form (20-30 pm) pathogenic form lives in mucosa and submucosa of the large intestine and may reach the liver, brain, and gonad. It is active, motile, feeding form having a single nucleus and food vacuole; cyst absent.
13. The precystic form (12-15 mm) non-pathogenic form lives in the lumen of the large intestine. It is inactive, non-motile, non-feeding stage have 4 nuclei and a cyst.
14. It was discovered in Russia by Losch (1875).

NEET Biology Kingdom Protista Plasmodium

Important points

• It is an important pathogenic parasite which causes malaria in man.
• The lift cycle is completed in two hosts, mini is the primary host of Plii simulitmi and the mosquito is the intermediate (secondary) host.
• When an infected female Anopheles mosquito sucks the blood of a man. it injects thousands of into humans along with its saliva.
• The sporozoites reach the liver cells within half an hour after a mosquito bite.
• The sporozoites multiply in the liver through asexual reproduction known as Schizogony.
• The complete two cycles in the liver are known as pre-Erythrocytic schizogony and exo-Krythrocytic schizogony.
• Piv-l-erythrocytic cycle produces a large number of cryptoincrozoitcs and the Exolirythrocytic cycle produces metacrypto merozoitcs. They are of two sizes and are called micro meta crypto merozoites and macro meta crypto merozoites.
• Metacry ptomerozoitcs attack the R.B. Cs in man and start the erythrocytic schizogony.
• The various stages in this cycle are the signet ring stage, the Amoeboid stage, the Trophozoite stage and the Schizont.
• Some yellow-coloured excretory granules are formed on the surface of RBC known as SchufTner’s dots. During this cycle, the haemoglobin of the RBCs breaks into Hacmozoin, a toxic substance.
• After die completion of the erythrocytic cycle the RBC ruptures and this causes shivering. The haemozoin is released out of the R.B.Cs and this causes malaria fever.
• After completing several erythrocytic cycles in the human, the parasites become so plentiful, that they either kill the host or may die themselves due to the struggle for existence. To avoid the chances of total extinction, the parasites go to the other host i.e. female anopheles mosquito.

The parasites make two types of gametocytes, in the human R.B.C.s i.e.

Microgametocytes (Male) and megagametocytes (female). These gametocytes are sucked into the crop of mosquitoes when it bites an infected person.

The male gametocytes produce male gametes (each one about 6) and female gametocytes produce one female gamete each in the lumen of the crop of mosquito. The process by which the male gametes separate away from the male gametocyte is known as exflagellation.

Fertilization takes place in the cavity of the crop of mosquito and a large number of zygotes are formed. The zygotes become spindle-shaped as they pass through the wall stomach and are known as vermiform or ookinete. Some zygotes fail to penetrate and are passed out with faeces.

Kingdom Protista NEET Question Bank

The zygotes gel encysted in the stomach wall and are known as oocysts (sporocysts). There may be up to 5000 oocysts present on the stomach wall of one infected mosquito.

A large number of sporozoites are produced in the sporocysts by repeated divisions. This asexual phase is termed sporogony.

As the wall of sporocyst ruptures the sporozoites are released into the haemolymph and carried to salivary glands. During the sucking of blood, the sporozoites are injected into the body of a healthy person along with saliva.

NEET Biology Kingdom Protista Paramecium

Important points

Found in fresh water having decayed organic matter, bacteria, also known as slipper animalcule because its shape resembles like sole of a slipper and the size is about 0.3 mm.

The outer membrane is thick, inelastic and tough and is known as a pellicle.

• The oral groove extends from the anterior end and runs obliquely backwards making the body asymmetrical.
• There are rows of cilia present all over the body which arise from basal bodies (kinetoscope). The cilia are longer at the posterior end and known as caudal tuft.
• In Paramecium about 2500 cilia are present. Cilia beat in metachronous fashion and a cilium beats 10-11 times per sec. Caudal tuft cilia of paramecium are tactile.
• A row of cilia, kinetosomes and kinetodesmata constitute kinety. All the kineties form the infraciliary system or neuromotor system.
• The cytoplasm is divided into ectoplasm and endoplasm.
• A definite cell mouth is present known as the cytostome which opens into a funnel-shaped structure known as the cytopharynx, which leads to the endoplasm A temporary cytopyge or cell anus is present for the egestion of undigested food. Nutrition is holozoic.
• There are two contractile vacuoles present, one at each end of the body, meant for osmoregulation. Each contractile vacuole has a central reservoir and few radiating canals.
• Posterior contractile vacuole works more efficiently in paramecium.
• There are two nuclei which show nuclear dimorphism and make nuclear apparatus.
• They are situated in the endoplasm. Types of nuclei present are meganucleus and micronucleus. The meganucleus controls vegetative activities, divides by amitosis and contains trophochromatin (mostly RNA). The micronucleus controls reproductive activities, divides mitotically and contains dichromatic (mostly DNA).
• The species of paramecium having only three nuclei is Paramecium aurelia.

The food particle is taken through the cytostome into the endoplasm, where it becomes a vacuole known as a food vacuole.

The food vacuoles revolve in cytoplasm along an ‘8’ or ‘0’ shaped path. The movement is due to cyclosis (Rotatory streaming movement of cytoplasm).

In the ectoplasm is present a large number of sacs, all over the inner side of the pellicle known as trichocysts. These are discharged when Paramecium is stimulated and gets enlarged and thus plays a defensive role. They also help in anchorage.

Paramecium swims actively in water along a spiral path with the beating of cilia (effective stroke and recovery stroke). The spiral path results due to forward push, axial rotation and turning of the anterior end.

• Reproduction takes place asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction takes place by transverse binary fission.
• Asexual reproduction, generation after generation leads to senility and ageing in paramecium. It resorts to sexual reproduction for rejuvenation.
• Sexual reproduction takes place by conjugation (amphimixis).
• Paramecium also overcomes senility by a cystotomy, autogamy, tendonitis and he mixes.
• In Paramecium bursaria, the green alga zoochlorella lives as a symbiont.
• Paramecium respond to electric current (galvanotaxis). If the current is weak it moves towards the cathode and if the electric current is strong moves towards the anode and then swells and disintegrates.

Paramecium contains self-duplicating bodies in cytoplasm mainly; Kappa particles other mutant particles are pi, lambda and ft particles.

Kingdom Protista NEET Mcqs

NEET Biology Kingdom Protista Trypanosoma

Important points

1. It is a parasitic zooflagellate that mostly parasitizes the blood of vertebrates, first observed by Fonle (1901 ).
2. Common species of Trypanosoma which live as parasites in the blood of man are: T. gambiense (causes African Sleeping sickness spread by tse fly, Glossina pelpalis), T. rhodesiense. (causes fast African sleeping sickness) and T. cruzi (causes South American trypanosomiasis or Chagas disease, transmitted by a large blood-sucking bug).
3. The body is microscopic, elongated, leaf-like flattened, covered by pellicles and tapering at both ends. The anterior pointed end bears flagellum and the posterior end is blunt.
4. Trypanosoma shows polymorphism. The four morphic forms me viz.
   1. Leishmania form
   2. Lcptomqnuil form
   3. Crilhidial form
   4. Trypanosoma form
5. Tire trypanosomal form occurs both in the invertebrate and vertebrate host and crithidia is found in the invertebrate host only.
6. The cytoplasm contains numerous greenish refractile granules called volutin granules supposed to store food material.
7. Large oval vesicular nucleus present with nucleolus or endosome in the middle.
8. It obtains its food by osinotrophy from the blood.
9. Excretion and respiration through the general surface.
10. Sexual reproduction is unknown and it reproduces asexually by longitudinal binary fission.
11. The life cycle is completed in two hosts. The primary host is a man and the intermediate host or vector is a tsetse fly.
12. Infection to man is caused by the introduction of meta cysts by the bite of the tsetse fly.
13. Ablastin. It is the antibody produced during early infection of trypanosoma.
14. Meninges-encephalitis is caused by Trypanosoma.

NEET Biology Kingdom Protista Leishmania

Leishmania is also a digenetic, parasitic flagellate. The vertebrate host is man and the invertebrate host is sand fly of the genus Phlebotomus. Reserve hosts are cats and dogs. Leishmania is an intracellular parasite of man.

It is dimorphic. Two forms are:

1. Leishmania form
2. Leptomonad form

Leishmania donovani causes kala-azar or Visceral Leishmaniasis or dum dum fever in Africa, South America; India, and China. In Kala Azar Antimony compounds, like tartar emetic, sodium antimony tartrate, gluconate etc are used as drugs.

Leishmania tropica is a causative agent of Oriental sore. This species is more common in Africa and Central Asia.

NEET Biology Kingdom Protista Giardia

Monogenetic parasite of the human large intestine classified under the class Flagellata.

Giardia lamblia also referred to as Giardia intestinalis, is colloquially termed the “grand old man of the intestine.” Giardia induces “giardiasis” or dysentery in humans. Other species are also present in rabbits, dogs, cats, rats, guinea pigs, etc.

Trichomonas

• Trichomonas is a monogenetic, parasitic flagellate organism.
• Trichomonas is the predominant protozoan present in all vertebrate taxa. Trichomonas buccalis is located in the oral cavity and exacerbates pyorrhea.
• Trichomonas vaginalis is present in the vagina of a human female. It induces vaginitis and leucorrhea in females. Male individuals remain unaffected.
• Trichomonas hominis resides in the human large intestine, resulting in recurrent diarrhea.
• Helizoans (Solar Animalcules). The protists exhibit radiating axopodia reinforced by axial filaments. Illustration of Actinophrys. The latter exists in both freshwater and saltwater. It is heterotrophic.

NEET Biology Kingdom Protista Foraminiferans

Sarcodines possess one or more chambered calcareous shells, with extracapsular protoplasm that generates reticulopodia.

• Foraminifera ooze frequently accumulates at the seabed and, with time, transforms into limestone formations. The Egyptian pyramids are constructed from it.
• Petroleum-bearing formations frequently contain fossilized foraminifera.
• The White Chalk of the Cretaceous period and the Nummulitic Limestones of the Eocene epoch are of foraminiferal origin. Illustrations. Haphidium (also known as Polystomella), Globigerina.

NEET Biology Kingdom Protista Radiolarians

The snowlines are of considerable size and multifaceted. The chromosomal count is elevated.

• Aulocantha possesses the highest chromosomal count, totalling 1600. Radiolarians possess siliceous, structured capsules, with the intracapsular region containing nuclei and vacuoles.
• The extracapsular region contains pseudopodia (niopodia, axopodia, or reticulopodia).
• Radiolarian ooze resembles diatomaceous earth. Chalk was developed during the Ordovician-Carboniferous period, and siliceous powder was produced in Tertiary rocks. Illustrations. Acanthomctra, Ccillozoie.

Kingdom Protista NEET Exam Preparation

NEET Biology Kingdom Protista Types Or Parasites

1. Permanent parasite. Parasitic for whole life, Example Entamoeba,
2. Obligate parasite. Unable to live outside the body of the host. Example viruses, Mycoplasma, (Hi) Facultative parasites, capable of living as a parasite (normally free-living), e.g. Clostridium tetani
3. Temporary parasite. Comes in contact with the host for only a part of the lifecycle,
4. Periodic parasite. Visiting host at a specific period of life history (W) Intermittent parasite. Temporary parasite visiting host at intervals. Example female Mosquito, Leech,
5. Incidental parasite. An organism becoming parasitic over host perchance/incidentally
6. Ectoparasite. On the surface of the host, Example Hydramoeba.
7. Endoparasite. Parasites live inside the body of the host It is of the following types.
8. Intracellular/Cytozoic parasite Endoparasite within host cells, Example Plasmodium.
9. intercellular/Histozoic/Tissue parasite. Endoparasite in spaces amongst cells Example Trichinella.

Body Fluid Parasite. In blood and other fluids, for example, Trypanosoma, (x) Coelozoic/ Cavity/Gut/Parasite. In the lumen/cavity of the body and organs, for Example; Giardia noxious/ Monogenetic parasite.

Passing life in a single host,  Heteroxenous/Heteroecious/ Digenetic parasite. Passing life in two hosts Hyper parasite.

Parasite over Parasite. Protozoan. Noscma is parasitic over protozoan Spliaerospora which is itself- parasitic overToad Fish. Pathogenic parasite, disease-causing (x iv) Non-pathogenic parasite.

Types of Hosts Primary Host. Host in which the parasite becomes sexually mature. Definitive Host.

Host of the adult parasite, Intermediate/Secondary Host. The host in which the parasite passes its larval stage is the collateral Host. Alternate host in which the parasite can subsist but cannot complete its life cycle.

• Coordinated ciliary beating may be metachronous (when cilia of transverse rows beat simultaneously) or synchronous (when cilia of longitudinal rows beat simultaneously). Among the protozoans, ciliates arc fastest in their locomotion and cover about 2 min per second.
• Medium in the food vacuole of Paramecium is first acidic and then alkaline.
  Nuclear dimorphism. Presence of two morphologically and physiologically different nuclei e.g. in ciliates.
• The Chromatin of the meganucleus is called trophochromatin,
  while that of the micronucleus is called idiochromatin.
• Trichocysts: Reported by Ellis. Pellicle, an extracellular coat of Paramecium is compa
  able to the skin of higher animals. Hill (1752) Discovered Paramecium. T.H. Sonneborn (1917) Reported that Paramecium caudatum has 16 syngens (varieties showing conjugation), while P. aurelia has 14 syngens.He also reported the cytoplasmic inheritance of Kappa particles in Paramecium.
• Ceratium is a member of dinoflagellates which are called fire algae as most of their members have luciferin compounds.
• Nosema was discovered by Pasteur (1865) causing the chronic disease ‘pebrine’ in silkworms and mosena disease in honeybees.
• Oriental sores also called cutaneous leishmaniasis because of the formation of 2-3 raised nodular lesions of about 2 5 cm in diameter on the skin of the exposed part of the body. Entamoeba gingivalis is not a causative agent of pyorrhoea but aggravates it, the causative agent is Trichomonas tenax. Chromatoid bodies stain easily with dyes which stain the chromatin therefore called so actually they are reserve food bodies formed in precystic forms which form cysts by secreting thin transparent cysts.
• The damaged cells of the spleen release lysolecithin which further damages RBC causing excessive release of bile pigments even in urine, therefore, called black water fever by Plasmodium falciparum. Coclozoic parasites are those which live in the alimentary canal or cavities of the host body, example; Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia and Balantidium coli.
• Schizogony is also called agamogony which is an asexual process not related to the sexual phenomenon. The product of schizogony generally grows into trophozoite.
• In certain species, capillitia have granules of carbonate of lime in capillitial threads called limeknots. The spores germinate into protoplasm exhibiting amoeboid movements before karyogamy therefore called myxamoebae.

Important Contributors

• Term Protista was given by Eamst Haeckel
• Leeuwenhoek (1674. 1675, 1681). First to see and sketch protozoan protists including Vorticella and Gia- cs> Golgi (1885). Studied erythrocytic cycle of Plasmonlia (from his stool). Goldfuss (1822). Separated protozoa from other animals. Von-Sicbold (1845). Found protozoans to be unicellular.
• The term unicellular was replaced with acellular by Dobel. Haeckel. In 1873, he differentiated protozoa from metazoa. Haeckel (1886) carved the kingdom protista for single-celled organisms. Lnvernn (1880). Discovered Plasmodium in erythrocytes.

Quanta to memory

• The earliest Protist was probably a flagellate. Flagella helped in moving the large eukaryotic cell through the water to where it could survive i.e. towards the light in the case of photoautotrophs and towards food in the case of heterotrophs. Flagellated cells are absent in red algae, higher seed plants and higher fungi. Several aquatic larval stages of animals are ciliated.
• The presence or absence, number, appearance, shape and place of insertion of flagella are important characteristics of protists. Proterospongia.
• A colonial protozoan protist having choanocyte-like flagellated and collared cells. It is a connecting link between Protista and Porifera. Auxospores.
• Rejuvescent spores formed in diatoms to correct the size which decreases with each binary fission. Schuffner’s granules are absent in the blood of a person infected with P. malariae. A few members of dinoflagellates, Gonyaulax and Gymnodinium produce the so-called ‘red tide’.
• A sudden increase in their number at the sea surface over a vast expanse makes the sea appear red. A toxin released by such large numbers may kill other marine animals like fish.
• Zooxanthellae. Dinoflagellates symbionts in other protists and invertebrates. Some dinoflagellates such as Noctiluca are phosphorescent (bioluminescent).
• They make the sea surface glow in the dark. Volvox colony is called coenobium as the zooids (individuals of the colony) are interconnected by protoplasmic strands. Noctiluca has photogenic granules with a light-emitting pigment called luciferin.
• It shows bioluminescence so is commonly called night light. The process of sexual reproduction allows greater variation in the progeny than asexual reproduction by mitosis.
• The rapid evolutionary advancements made during the one billion years of eukaryotic existence were believed to be made possible by sexual reproduction. Entamoeba gingivalis is found in 70% population and spreads through kissing. E. histolytica was discovered by Lamble however details regarding its pathogenicity were given by Losch.
• E. coli is found as an endocommensal in the colon of about 50% population. Egyptian pyramids are formed of Foaminiferan ooze. Aulocantha (a radiolarian protozoa) has the largest number of chromosomes (1600).
• Opalina is found as an endo commensal in the rectum of the frog. Vorticella is an epizoic protozoan and is commonly called bell-animalcule.

Kingdom Protista NEET Previous Year Questions

NEET Biology Kingdom Protista Questions From Competitive Examination

Question 1. In amoeba, contractile vacuole is present :

1. Near trailing end
2. Near advancing end
3. In the middle of the body
4. Near the nucleus.

Answer: 1. Near trailing end

Question 2. Which of the following is incorrectly matched?

1. Culex pipiens—filariasis
2. Aedes aegyptii—yellow fever
3. Anopheles culinarians—leishmaniasis
4. Glossina palpalis—sleeping sickness

Answer: 3. Anopheles culinarians—leishmaniasis

Question 3. A contractile vacuole meant for osmoregulation is not found in:

1. Sarcodina
2. Sporozoa
3. Zooflagellata
4. Slime moulds.

Answer: 2. Sporozoa

Question 4. Malaria is caused by :

1. Virus
2. Bacterium
3. Sporozoan
4. Helminth.

Answer: 3. Sporozoan

Question 5. Which of the following is not connected with the reproduction of protozoans?

1. Cryptogamy
2. Schizogamy
3. Autogamy
4. Conjugation.

Answer: 2. Schizogamy

Question 6. Which of the following features is common in all protozoans?

1. Holozoic nutrition
2. Contractile vacuole
3. Pseudopodia
4. Eukaryotic organisation.

Answer: 4. Eukaryotic organisation.

Question 7. What of the following is not true of Euglena?

1. Presence of chlorophyll
2. Presence of proteinaceous pellicle
3. Presence of cellulose cell wall
4. Presence of flagellum.

Answer: 3. Presence of cellulose cell wall

Question 8. Which of the following is incorrect:

1. Omnivory
2. Holozoic nutrition
3. Photoautotrophy
4. Pseudopodia feeder.

Answer: 3. Photoautotrophy

Question 9. Which of the following features is common amongst euglena, amoeba, entamoeba and trypanosoma?

1. Binary fission
2. Holozoic nutrition
3. Contractile vacuole
4. Multiple fission.

Answer: 1. Binary fission

Kingdom Protista NEET Notes

Question 10. Which of the following unicellular organisms has a macronucleus for trophic function and one or more micronuclei for reproduction?

1. Euglena
2. Amoeba
3. Paramecium
4. Trypanosoma.

Answer: 3. Paramecium

Question 11. man in the life cycle of plasmodium is

1. Primary host
2. Secondary host
3. Intermediate host
4. None of these

Answer: 2. Secondary host

Question 12. Entamoeba histolytica differs from amoeba in the absence of

1. Pseacopodia
2. Contractile vacuole
3. Nucleus
4. Aectoplasm

Answer: 2. Contractile vacuole

Question 13. Myxomycetes are :

1. Saprobes or parasites, having mycelia, asexual reproduction by fragmentation, sexual reproduction by fusion of gametes
2. Slimy mass of multinucleate protoplasm, having pseudopodia-like structures for engulfing food, reproduction through fragmentation or zoospores
3. Prokaryotic organisms, cellular or acellular, saprobes or autotrophic, reproduce by binary fission
4. Eukaryotic, single-celled or filamentous, saprobes or autotrophic, asexual reproduction by fusion of two cells of their nuclei

Answer: 2. Slimy mass of multinucleate protoplasm, having pseudopodia-like structures for engulfing food, reproduction through fragmentation or zoospores

Question 14. The thalloid body of a slime mould (myxomycetes) is known as:

1. Fruiting body
2. Mycelium
3. Protonema
4. Plasmodium

Answer: 4. Plasmodium

Question 15. What is common about trypanosoma, noctiluca, monocystis and giardia?

1. They produce spores
2. These are all parasites
3. These are all unicellular protists
4. They have flagella.

Answer: 3. These are all unicellular protists

Question 16. Which one of the following is a slime mould?

1. Physarum
2. Thiobacillus
3. Anabaena
4. Rhizopus

Answer: 1. Physarum

Question 17. Which one of the following pairs is wrongly matched

1. Yeast – ethanol
2. Streptomycetes – antibiotic
3. Coliforms- vinegar
4. Methanogens- gobar gas

Answer: 3. Coliforms- vinegar

Question 19. Single-celled eukaryotes are included in :

1. Fungi
2. Archaea
3. Monera
4. Protista.

Answer: 4. Protista.

Kingdom Protista NEET MCQs

Question 20. Which one of the following life cycle stages of the malarial parasite is responsible for the relapse of malarial symptoms?

1. Merozoite
2. Hypnozoite
3. Sporozoite
4. Gametocyte

Answer: 1. Merozoite

NEET Biology The Living World Understanding Life

• Both life and non-living entities consist of identical elements and are regulated by the same physical laws.
• The estimated number of known living organisms is 1.7 million, comprising 1.2 million animals and 500,000 plants.
• All living organisms exhibit varying degrees of organization.
• Despite the fact that non-living components comprise live organisms, life cannot be generated merely by assembling all necessary ingredients in appropriate quantities.
• Aggregation, interaction, equilibrium, and transformation govern all forms of organizations.
• A living creature is both an autonomous entity and a component of the natural environment.
• Micro and macromolecules constitute life, and these molecules are perpetually engaged in interactions with one another.
• Approximately 5,000 compounds exist in the biosphere, encompassing 3,000 distinct reaction types.
• A cell may harbor 2000 enzymes to facilitate diverse metabolic pathways.
• Following water, proteins are the most prevalent compounds in the body.
• Cellulose is the predominant molecule in plants, whereas chitin is the most prevalent in animals.
• Energy transfers and transformations occur continuously within a living cell.
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) serves as the cellular energy currency.
• Biological processes harness free energy from their surroundings.
• Biological systems are governed by entropy.

NEET Biology The Living World Notes

• Energy-releasing reactions that are capable of proceeding spontaneously are exergonic as aerobic respiration, lactic acid fermentation, and alcoholic fermentation
  1. Aerobic respiration: C₆H₁₂O₆+6O₂→6CO₂+6H₂O
  2. Lactic acid fermentation: C₆H₁₂O₆→2C₃H₆O₃
  3. Alcoholic fermentation: C₆H₁₂O₆→2C₂H₅OH+2CO₂
• Endergonic reactions are energy-consuming and cannot proceed at all unless energy is supplied continuously from an external source. fit Living organisms maintain their internal organization stable irrespective of changes in the environment.
• Reproduction is a characteristic feature of all living organisms and ensures the perpetuation of the species.
• DNA is the genetic material (RNA in plant viruses) and it is the only material capable of replication.
• Living organisms can adapt themselves according to need. LJ Living organisms have a definite life span. Death is the terminal stage of the life cycle.
• Death plays several positive roles such as reducing the population and recycling of materials.
• Life can be defined as a unique complex organization of molecules expressing itself through chemical reactions that lead to growth, development, responsiveness, adaptation, and reproduction.
• Atoms are nature’s building material All plants and animals and non-living substances are formed of matter.
• Any material in the universe that has mass and occupies a space is defined as matter. The building blocks of matter are atoms. These atoms aggregate and constitute elements.
• There are more tlum l(X) elements occurring in nature, out of these only 25 are essential to life. C. H, O. N, and P. S constitute about 98% of the mass of every living organism. performs the activities of life such as nutrition, growth, respiration, irritability, reproduction, etc.

NEET Biology The Living World Notes

• It is the reversible crystallo-colloidal solution. Huxley called protoplasm the ‘physical basis of life’. Life without protoplasm cannot exist.
• Chemical bonds act as the glue of life Chemical bond. It is an attractive force that links two atoms to form a molecule. Covalent bond. When two atoms share a pair of valence electrons, the bond is called a covalent bond. Single bond.
• A bond in which a single pair of electrons is shared. Double bond. When four electrons are shared, the bond is called a double bond (O = O).
• The hydrogen bond is a weak chemical bond formed as a result of dipole-dipole interaction in which a partially electronegative atom of one molecule gets bonded to a partially electropositive but covalently held hydrogen atom.
• Water is a polar molecule. Molecules that exhibit charge separation are called polar molecules because of their magnetic poles. Therefore, water is a polar molecule. In the water molecule, the oxygen atoms bear a partial negative charge (d) and each hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge (d+).
• In liquid water, the negatively charged oxygen atom of one molecule of water is attracted to the positively charged hydrogen atom of another molecule of water. The bond resulting from this attraction is called a hydrogen bond.
• Biomolecules. The molecules present in living systems are called biomolecules. Micromolecules. They are simple molecules with low molecular weight.
• Micromolecules may be inorganic or organic. Inorganic micromolecules include water and inorganic salts. The organic macromolecules include sugar, amino acids, nitrogen bases, and nucleotides.
• The micromolecules are as important as macro molecules for living organisms. Whereas most of the organic micromolecules constitute the basic unit for the formation of macromolecules, water, and salts have their role to play.
• Macromolecules. They have a large size and their molecular weight runs into several thousands or even millions. All of them are organic compounds.
• A macromolecule is formed by the linking together of several smaller molecular units or monomers. This phenomenon is called Polymerisation.
• ACTH is a hormone that is the smallest protein with 39 amino acids and has mol. wt. 4500.
• Haemocyanin (a Cu++ containing respiratory pigment of mollusks) is the largest protein. It has mol. wt. 9,10,000 and 8200 amino acids.
• Term homeostasis was given by Cannon and refers to a favorable internal environment.

Life Span of Some Organism

1. Mayfly- 1 day
2. Monkey- 26 days
3. Cat- 35 to 40days
4. Elephant- 65 days
5. Man- 100 days
6. Tortoise- 200 year
7. Sequoia tree – 3000 years to 4000 years
8. Wheat- 5 months
9. Dog- 20 to 30 years (recordes 29 years 5 months)
10. Horse- 60 years
11. Eagle- 90 years
12. Parrot- 140 years
13. Banyan Tree- 200 years to 4000 years
14. Ficus religious- 2000 years to 3000 years

NEET Biology The Living World Growth And Development

Growth

• An increase in the mass or overall size of a tissue or organism or its parts is called growth.
• Growth occurs due to the synthesis of protoplasmic and apoplasmic substances.
  1. Protoplasmic substances include cytoplasm and nucleus.
  2. Apoplasmic substances produced by the cells constitute the matrix of the tissues.
  3. Growth as a result of metabolism involves the transfer of energy and it occurs when anabolism exceeds catabolism. There will be degrowth in reverse situations.
• Growth involves three processes in general:

1. Cell proliferation
2. Cell enlargement
3. Secretion of extracellular matrix.

Development

1. Development is characterized by three features Growth, Morphogenesis, and Differentiation.
2. During morphogenesis cells begin to move or migrate, to shape the new individual For Example; A zygote develops into a blaslula, a blaslula into a gastrula, and so on.
3. Differentiation is the process of tissue formation, cells change their shape and form and turn into particular types of cells, depending on their position in the body. Differentiation results in increasing diversity of cells.

The Living World Class 11 Notes For NEET

NEET Biology The Living World Energy Flow And Change In Living Systems

• Energy is the ability to do work, life requires a constant flow of energy to perform life functions.
• Energy exists in two states.
  1. Potential energy. The energy of position; and
  2. Kinetic energy. The energy of action. Much of the work performed by organisms involves changing potential energy (of food) to kinetic energy as exergonic reactions.
• All the energy changes that take place in the universe, from nuclear explosions to the buzzing of bees, are governed by two laws of thermodynamics.
• The first law is “ Energy is neither created nor destroyed, it only undergoes transfer or transformation.” Hence total amount of energy in the universe remains constant.
• The second law is “ All objects in the universe tend to come to disorder or randomness which is continually increasing in the universe.”
• In the process of transfer and transformation, a system (also an organism) loses some energy in the form of heat leading toward a state of randomness.
• The energy lost to disorder is referred to as entropy. Organisms minimize entropy by intake of food (input of energy).
• Although energy cannot come into or go out of the universe, Earth is constantly receiving energy from the Sun which heats the oceans and continents.
• Part of it is trapped by photosynthetic organisms to change it into chemical energy as endergonic reactions.
• The stored energy (ATP) can be shifted to other molecules by forming different chemical bonds or can be changed into kinetic energy; motion, light, electricity, and heat.

Enzymes direct Metabolic Pathways

• Enzyme. Any of a group of catalytic proteins that are produced by living cells, and that mediate and promote the chemical processes of life without themselves being altered or destroyed.
• Chemical reactions require activation energy to get started. Living systems contain enzymes that lower the activation energy. Life is therefore a process run by enzymes.
• Most enzymes are globular proteins with one or a few grooves on their surface called active sites which only particular substrates can fit into. Therefore enzyme-substrate interactions are specific and because of this, a cell can run a thousand reactions at a time.
• Each cell in our body contains 1000 to 5000 different types of enzymes.
• Enzyme activity is sensitive to the presence of modulators that bind to the enzymes.
• A substance that decreases the enzyme activity is called an inhibitor and if it increases the activity, it is an activator. Binding sites for these are called allosteric sites.
• Sometimes end product of the reaction acts as an allosteric inhibitor for the enzyme. This is also known as feedback or end-product inhibition.

The Living World Class 11 Notes For NEET

NEET Biology The Living World Homeostasis

• Hemostasis is the maintenance of the internal environment of the body. For this, all molecules cells tissues, organs, and systems must work together.
• A feedback system also operates which provides information about the physiological state and content of the system and appropriate adjustments are made accordingly.
• Most regulatory mechanisms of our body run through negative feedback loops.

The Living World Class 11 Notes For NEET

NEET Biology The Living World Thermoregulation

• Thermal energy is generated during the exergonic events of metabolism.
• Ectothermic organisms predominantly dissipate their thermal energy to the surrounding environment. Examples include fish, amphibians, reptiles, and flora. Their body temperature fluctuates with the environment and is referred to as poikilotherms.
• Endothermic organisms conserve their heat energy for utilization. For instance, mammals, birds, and some fish such as tuna and swordfish. They possess insulating materials such as adipose tissue, fur, and plumage to minimize thermal dissipation to the surroundings.
• These species maintain a reasonably consistent body temperature and are referred to as homeotherms.

NEET Biology The Living World Important Points

NEET Biology The Living World Reproduction And Survival

Reproduction:

The process through which an organism produces offspring of the same species is termed reproduction.

• The fundamental characteristic of life is reproduction, and millions of years ago, DNA developed this capability. The continuation of organisms occurs via reproduction. “No entity endures eternally; nevertheless, existence persists.”
• DNA is the hereditary molecule that encompasses all information pertaining to growth, differentiation, and functioning, thus referred to as a “blueprint.
• ” The information encoded in DNA is utilized by cellular machinery to synthesize proteins, which may include enzymes or other types of molecules.
• Viruses possess genetic material but lack the cellular machinery to utilize it; instead, they exploit the machinery of host cells.
• Outside the live cell, they are inanimate; hence, their crystals can be preserved in a container for several years. A virus cannot be cultivated in an artificial media.

NEET Biology The Living World Important Points

NEET Biology The Living World Adaptation

• Adjustment to new or altered environmental conditions by changes in genotype or phenotype is called adaptation.
• Adapted organism means that its appearance, behavior, structure, and mode of life make it suitable to survive in a particular habitat.
• Every organism must be adapted if it is to survive.
• Adaptations arc of two types:

1. Short term adaptations

Useful variations that develop in specific conditions to overcome short unfavorable periods. Example:

1. Hibernating animals become inactive in unfavorable conditions, metabolism becomes low; and the source of energy is stored fat.
2. Dormancy of seeds, and their germination with the onset of favorable conditions.
3. Tanning (darkening) of skin due to exposure to sunlight, more melanin is formed in the top layer of skin to protect the underlying tissue from solar radiation.
4. Phototropism and geotropism are shown by growing plants.

2. Long-term adaptations

Useful variations that develop gradually over a long period as a permanent change, For Example:

1. Different types of beaks and claws in birds for feeding and perching.
2. The thick tail of the Kangaroo serves as the 5th limb.
3. Backward protrusion of our ankle bone helps us stand erect.
4. An opposable thumb in our hand makes it skillful.
5. Female mosqutoes have to pierce and suck type mouth parts to suck human blood since the protein of mammalian blood is necessary for the production of their eggs.
6. Desert plants are either leafless or have fleshy succulent stems covered by thick epidermis and wax layers.
7. Night-blooming plants have either white or scented flowers to attract pollinators.
8. The hummingbird (flower pecker) only hovers around the flower and does not sit on it as it can’t bear the bird’s load.
9. The polymorphism in bees and termites is an adaptation for the division of labor in the colony.
10. Aquatic plants have thin narrow ribbon-shaped orhighly dissected leaves to provide the least resistance to water currents and adsorb maximum light.
11. The submerged parts are covered over by mucilage. Mechanical tissues are absent.
12. Plants with both submerged and emerged leaves usually show heterophylism. The emerged leaves are broad and entire while the submerged ones are dissected or ribbon-like Example, Limnophila.

NEET Biology The Living World Important Points

NEET Biology The Living World Death And Its Significance

• Life and death represent the dual aspects of existence. The term death pertains exclusively to larger organisms characterized by higher levels of biological complexity.
• At the cellular level, creatures do not perish as a cell splits into new cells; such organisms are termed “immortal,” exemplified by Amoeba, Paramecium, and Hydra.
• Each organism perpetuates its existence by its progeny, namely via gametes.
• Thus, “Death is the cost incurred for attaining a superior level of organization.”
• It is a self-regulating homeostatic mechanism that monitors population density to avert overcrowding.
• Death facilitates the recycling of matter, which is essential for maintaining equilibrium in nature.
• Dead cells and tissues, such as heartwood (sclerenchyma) and cork, play crucial roles in providing support and protection to living tissues. Vessels in sapwood function as conduits for transporting water and minerals to significant elevations.
• Histolysis of larval structures is necessary for the formation of adult structures during metamorphosis.
• Aging is a prerequisite for death, except accidental death. Therefore, it is an integral component of the life cycle.
• In humans, “clinical death” refers to the absence of a pulse and fixed pupils. Biological death transpires several hours later, as other tissues and organs continue to function for an extended period following clinical death. For transplantation, the organ or tissues are excised within minutes post-mortem.
• Occasionally, an organism may seem lifeless yet rejuvenates when favorable conditions return; for instance, the leaves of club moss (Selaginella lepidophylla), which appears as desiccated straw, regain its verdancy within hours of being submerged in water.
• The ease of Mvrothamnus and Cratemstigma in Africa is comparable. This arc is titled ‘The Resurrection Plant.

The Living World NEET Exam Preparation Notes

NEET Biology The Living World Virus

Virus: (Latin: Virus = venom or poisonous fluid) A large group of infectious agents ranging from 10-250 nanometres in diameter, composed of a protein sheath surrounding a nucleic acid core, characterized by total dependence on living cells for reproduction.

• Beijcrinck in 1898 in Holland found that the filtrable, invisible, and noncultivable infectious entity would diffuse through an agar gel, like a fluid. He thought the fluid itself alive and called it contagium vivum fluiduni i.c. a living infectious fluid.
• Viral diseases of vertebrates were well known by 1 892, Louis Pasteur had been studying canine rabies for some time. He indicated the cause of this disease as a virus. The term virus was then commonly used for a variety of infectious agents, including bacteria.
• LoefTler and Frosch in 1898. showed that the agent of foot-and-mouth disease of cattle, like TMV, passed through bacteria-retaining filters, and was neither visible with a microscope nor cultivable on inanimate media.
• Walter Reed (1900) and his associates discovered the virus of yellow fever, the first viral disease of man.
• Features of Virus
  1. They are not free-living and occur only as obligate intracellular parasites.
  2. They have only a single kind of nucleic either DNA or RNA, but never both.
  3. Nucleic acid is a single molecule, i.e., one replicon, which may be single or double-stranded.
  4. The outer shell-capsid is mostly of protein, except for a few animal viruses where additional polysaccharides are also present.
  5. They can be propagated in living culture media only.
  6. They contain no metabolic enzymes or protein synthetic machinery of their own.
  7. They use host machinery for the synthesis of their proteins.
  8. They replicate. They do not grow, but their nucleic acid directs the host cell to make various parts of the virus and then to assemble these parts into complete, infectious particles, virions.
  9. The virus is noil-cellular.
  10. Viruses behave as non-living outside and when inside living cells behave as living.
  11. In inert conditions it is non-living but whenever it comes in contact with an organism it multiplies and show’s living phase.
  12. It is a connecting link between non-living and living.
• Infection of a host cell by Virus. The steps involved in infection of host cell adsorption, separation of nucleic acid from the coat, penetration of nucleic acid, maturation, and release.
• Genetic recombination. Genetic recombination in the T-even phage was discovered in 1946 by Delbriick.
• Hershey, who. performed genetic crosses between infecting bacteria with a host range (h) and rapid-lysis (r) mutants of phages. It occurs by lysogeny, transduction, etc.
• Structure of Virus

The Living World NEET Exam Preparation Notes

Chemical Structure and Composition

Viruses have a very simple structure. A virus is made of a nucleic acid core and protein coat called a capsid which surrounds the core.

A fully assembled particle, i.e., a virion, is capable of infecting the host.

1. The nucleic acid. A virion always contains only a single kind of nucleic acid, i.e., either DNA or RNA. The nucleic acid may occur as single or double strands. Plant viruses contain only single or double-stranded DNA or single or double-stranded RNA Bacterial viruses (bacteriophages) contain single or double-stranded DNA  or single-stranded RNA.
2. The infectious property of a virion is due to its nucleic acid. A host cell can synthesize complete virion if only free viral nucleic acid is injected within the cytoplasm of a living host cell.

Capsid or the protein coat:

The protein shell is referred to as a capsid. It consists of several similar protein subunits known as capsomeres.

• Capsomeres consist of one or more types of proteins. The host specificity of viruses is attributed to the proteins of the capsid.
• In a viral particle, the capsomeres are organized symmetrically, imparting a distinct form to the virus.
• Certain larger virus particles, known as virions, possess an extra layer of lipids or lipoproteins surrounding the capsid.
• Virions with an extra coating are termed enveloped
  • Example: Influenza virus, mumps virus), while those lacking this covering are designated as naked
  • Example: TMV

The Living World NEET Exam Preparation Notes

NEET Biology The Living World Kinds Of Viruses based on Host

• Bacteriophages Viruses infecting bacterial cell
• Mycophage – Virus infecting fungi
• Cyanophage viruses infecting cyanobacteria (Safferman and Morris isolated from Plectonema)
• Coliphages Any bacteriophage infecting Escherichia coli
• Zoophages (Animal virus) Viruses infecting animal cells
• Phytophages (Plant viruses) Viruses infecting plant cells
• Protozoa Virus Infecting protozoa (Diamond and Mattem demonstrated virus infecting amoeba and entamoeba.
• Mycoplasmal viruses infecting mycoplasma (Gourlay 1970)
• Satellite viruses (Incomplete viruses). Sometimes one virus may depend upon the assistance of another virus in the same cell to help it perform a necessary function of its existence.
• The first satellite virus to be recorded was found in association with a virus disease of tobacco, tobacco necrosis (Kassanis, 1963).
• Slow viruses (Prions). Prions are described as proteinaceous particles thought to cause many diseases including the slow virus diseases.
• Prions were named by Stanley B. Prusiner. Prions can survive heat, radiation, and chemical treatments that normally ate, They appear to be composed of only proteins.
• He viruses cause a range of infections viz. acute, chronic, persistent, latent, slowly progressive, and infections.

NEET Biology The Living World Study Material

NEET Biology The Living World Some Important Viruses

1. Influenza – Paramyxovirus
2. Smallpox – Variolla virus
3. Measles – Paramyxovirus
4. Polio – Enterovirus
5. German measles (Rubella) Tago viru
6. Cold – Orthoinyxo virus
7. Chickenpox – Varicella virus
8. Mumps – Paramyxovirus
9. Rabies – Rhadbo virus
10. HIV – Human Immuno Deficiency Virus

Some Common diseases of plains are caused by Viruses

1. Rosette disease
2. Little leaf of Brinjal
3. Yellow vein mosaic
4. Potato leafroll
5. Leaf curl of papaya
6. Bunchy top
7. Grassy shoot
8. Tobacco mosaic

NEET Biology The Living World Study Material

Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses

1. Numerous classification methods have been offered repeatedly. Their classification mostly relied on host range, clinical epidemiology, and pathological signs.
2. The categorization put forth by Lwoaff Horne and Tournler (1962) was utilized more frequently than alternative classifications.
3. The classification was determined by the type of nucleic acid found in viruses. The International Committee on Virus Nomenclature has established a standard for virus nomenclature. The designation comprises two components.
4. The initial segment represents the virus’s common name, whereas the subsequent segment encompasses the encoded information pertaining to the virus.

The second part is known as the cryptogram. It contains the following four pairs:

1. The first pair – represents the type of nucleic acid/number of strands in nucleic acid.
2. The second pair – represents the molecular weight of nucleic acid/amount of nucleic acid expressed as a percentage.
3. The third pair – denotes the shape of the virus shape of nucleoprotein.
4. The fourth pair- denotes the type of host carrier used in the transmission of the virus.

Example. The cryptogram of Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)

R/l : 2/5 : E/E S/A

It can be explained as under:

1. First pair – Nucleic acid – RNA (R) single-stranded – (1).
2. Second pair – Molecular weight of nucleic acid – (2) hundred thousand/ Amount of nucleic acid (5%).
3. Third pair – Shape of virus – elongated (E)/shape of nucleoprotein- elongated (E).
4. Fourth pair – Host – seed plants or spermatophytes (S)/carrier of transmission – air.

NEET Biology The Living World Study Material

Example. The Cryptogram of Influenza Virus

1. R/I : (2-3)/10 : S/E: V/A
2. It can be explained as under:
3. First pair: Nucleic acid – RNA (R)/single-stranded – (1)
4. Second pair- Molecular weight of nucleic acid – (2 or 3) hundred thousand/ Amount of nucleic acid (10%).
5. Third pair – Shape of virus – spherical (S)/shape of nucleoprotein – elongated (E).
6. Fourth pair – Host – vertebrate (V)Transmission by – air
7. Classification of human viral diseases based on the tissue affected

• NaCl is an important constituent of our blood. It plays a role in the maintenance of erythrocytes in blood.
• Carbon is the main sinistral element of living cells and
• CO2 is the main source.
• Molecular oxygen is necessary for life.
• Energy transfers and energy transformations continuously take place in a living cell.
• Carbohydrates are the main energy sources.
• Glucose of the simplest carbohydrate.
• Lipids are a major group of insoluble hydrocarbons. They are the main constituents of the membranes of the cell.
• Steroids form hormones.
• Proteins are the building materials of the body.
• Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.
• Nucleic acids are information storage devices of cells.
• DNA and RNA are the two main nucleic acids formed by nucleotides.
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the ‘energy currency’ of the cell.
• The living system utilizes free energy from the environment.
• Living systems also billow both laws of ilicrmodynamies
• Living systems are subject to entropy.
• Living organisms maintain their internal organization
• stable irrespective of changes in the environment. It is termed homeostasis.
• Living systems are open systems.
• Metabolism is the total of all chemical reactions taking place in the body.
• Metabolism reactions are of two types i.e. building up reactions termed anabolism and breaking down reactions as catabolism.
• All metabolic reactions are regulated and directed by enzymes.
• Enzymes are proteinic substances and act as catalysts, thus termed biocatalysts.
• Biochemical pathways are regulated and often depend upon the allosteric site of the enzyme.
• Organisms may be poikilothermal or homeothermal about the regulation of temperature.

NEET Biology The Living World Study Material

NEET Biology The Living World Quanta To Memory

1. In vitro. Studies in artificial medium.
2. In vivo. Studies in natural medium.
3. The oldest living tree is the bristle cone pine named Methuselah at 10,000 ft. on the calif side of the white mountains, with a confined age of 4600 years.
4. Amoeba, bacteria, and Paramecium are thought to be immortal as these do not suffer from natural death.
5. It has not been possible to create life because the nature of the molecular organization is complex and has not been completely understood.
6. The art of keeping tissues and organs alive outside the body of an animal was demonstrated by Sidney Ringer.
7. Homeostasis is maintained at the level of the organism as a whole with the cellular level as the basis.
8. Resurrection plants like Selaginella lepidophylla dry up in humid conditions but become green and alive with rain. Other examples are Craterostigma and Myrothamnus.
9. The concentration of salt in the body is .9% (0.9 gm in 100 ml) and it is isotonic with the cytosol. The life span of Macrozainia is about 10,000 to 12,000 years.
10. Kangaroo rat lives in arid areas. It does not drink water and depends upon only metabolic water. It feeds on dry seeds.
11. Neoteny: a phenomenon in which. the larva develops the gonads and starts reproduction without undergoing metamorphosis example, the Axolotl larva of Ambystoma (Tiger salamander).
12. Mammalian RBCs are biconcave and enucleated except for Camel and Llama.
13. The tusks of elephants are upper incisors while the tusks of walruses are upper canines.
14. Peplomeres. The envelope is composed of both viral and host components. Peplomeres represent the subunits. Capsomeres. Capsid is made of identical protein subunits capsomeres.
15. Flowers of Oplirys nucifera resemble the females of Calpa-aurea and are pollinated by male wasps.
16. Bushmen of the Kalahari desert employ signals of fingers and thumbs to indicate animals during hunting. A.T.P. is called the energy currency of cells (Lipman 1941).

The Living World NEET Chapter Summary

NEET Biology The Living World Questions From Competitive Examinations

Question 1. Saline DNP is given to patients suffering from cholera as

1. Na+ ions help in the retention of water in body tissues
2. Ncal is involved in the supply of energy
3. Naci furnishes most of the cell fuel
4. Nacl impairs nerve impulses involved in the transmission of pain sensation.

Answer: 1. Na+ ions help in the retention of water in body tissues

Question 2. Vims that have an arthropod as an intermediate host before attacking a vertebrate is :

1. Rcovirus
2. Adenovirus
3. Papovavirus
4. Parvovirus.

Answer: 2. Adenovirus

Question 3. Caulimo (cauliflower mosaic) viruses have :

1. Dsdna
2. Ssdna
3. Ssrna
4. Dsrna.

Answer: 1. dsDNA

Question 4. Which of the following is not an adaptive feature?

1. Phototropism
2. Cell division
3. Hibernation
4. Accommodation.

Answer: 2. Cell division

The Living World NEET Chapter Summary

Question 5. Tire process which cannot take place in the absence of viruses:

1. Transformation
2. Conjugation
3. Translocation
4. Transduction.

Answer: 4. Transduction.

Question 6. Mimicry is for:

1. Offense and defense
2. Concealment
3. Offense
4. Transition

Answer: 1. Offence and defence

Question 7. Volant adaptation is for :

1. Swimming
2. Flying
3. Climbing
4. Running.

Answer: 2. Flying

Question 8. The smallest unit of life is :

1. Dna
2. Rna
3. Cell
4. Protein.

Answer: 3. Cell

Question 9. When a spontaneous process occurs then :

1. Free energy decreases
2. Free energy increases
3. Free energy remains constant.
4. Sometimes increases and sometimes decreases.

Answer: 2. Free energy increases

Question 10. Each molecule of NADH-, releases how many ATP molecules?

1. 3
2. 2
3. 4
4. 8.

Answer: 1. 2

Question 11. The maximum life span of a dog is :

1. 5 Years
2. 10 Years
3. 15 Years
4. 20 Years.

Answer: 4. 20 Years.

The Living World NEET Chapter Summary

Question 12. The most abundant element present in plants is :

1. Manganese
2. Eon
3. Carbon
4. Nitrogen

Answer: 3. Carbon

Question 13. Living steady state has a self-regulatory mechanism called:

1. Feedback mechanism
2. Homeothermy
3. Homozygosity
4. Homeostasis.

Answer: 4. Homeostasis.

Question 14. Energy flow and energy transformations of a living system follow-:

1. Law of limiting factor
2. Law of thermodynamics
3. Liebig’s law of minimum
4. Biogenetic law.

Answer: 2. Law of thermodynamics

Question 15. The statement correct about enzymes is :

1. They are amino acids
2. They are most active at a temperature of 0°c
3. They are all proteins
4. They are most active at pH 6.9.

Answer: 3. They are all proteins

Question 16. During strenuous exercise glucose is converted into :

1. Glycogen
2. Pyruvic acid
3. Starch
4. Lactic acid.

Answer: 4. Lactic acid.

Question 17. In which form is the food transported in plants 7

1. Sucrose
2. Fructose
3. Glucose
4. Lactose.

Answer: 1. Sucrose

The Living World NEET Chapter Summary

Question 18. Which one of the following statements regarding enzyme inhibition is correct :

1. Competitive inhibition is seen when a substrate competes with an enzyme for binding to an inhibitor protein
2. Competitive inhibition is seen when the substrate and the inhibitor compete for the active site on the enzyme
3. Non-competitive inhibition of an enzyme can be overcome by adding a large amount of substrate
4. Non-competitive inhibitors often bind to the enzyme irreversibly.

Answer: 2. Competitive inhibition is seen when the substrate and the inhibitor compete for the active site on the enzyme

Question 19. An organic substance bound to an enzyme and essential for its activity is called :

1. Co-enzyme
2. Holoenzyme
3. Apoenzyme
4. Isoenzyme.

Answer: 1. Co-enzyme

Question 20. An enzyme that can stimulate the germination of barley seeds is:

1. A-amylase
2. Lipase
3. Protease
4. Invertase.

Answer: 1. A-amylase

Question 21. Which of the following processes needs bacteriophage?

1. Translation
2. Conjugation
3. Transformation
4. Transduction.

Answer: 4. Transduction.

Question 22. Transfer of genetic information through virus is :

1. Conjugation
2. Conduction
3. Transduction
4. Transformation.

Answer: 3. Transduction

Question 23. The virus that infects bacteria is made up of :

1. Protein only
2. Dna and lipid
3. Dna and protein
4. Rna and protein.

Answer: 3. Dna and protein

The Living World NEET Chapter Summary

Question 24. Identify the hepatitis vims, that cannot survive independently and it require another hepatitis vims for its multiplication :

1. Hepatitis-a vims
2. Hepatitis-b vims
3. Hepatitis-c vims
4. Hepatitis-d vims.

Answer: 4. Hepatitis-d vims.

Question 25. Which has ssrna?

1. Hav
2. Hbv
3. Ascaris
4. Entamoeba

Answer: 1. Hav

Question 26. Blumberg (1963) discovered :

1. Hiv
2. Hbv
3. Hav
4. Cold vims.

Answer: 2. Hbv

Question 27. Small proteins produced by vertebrate cells naturally in response to viral infections and which inhibit the multiplication of viruses are called :

1. Antitoxins
2. Interferons
3. Lipoproteins
4. Immunoglobulins.

Answer: 2. Interferons

Question 28. The genetic material of retrovirus is :

1. DNA
2. RNA
3. Both dna and RNA
4. None of these.

Answer: 2. RNA

Question 29. Provirus is :

1. A free vims
2. A free dna
3. Primitive vims
4. Integrated viral genome

Answer: 4. Integrated viral genome

Question 30. Viroids cause :

1. Tobacco mosaic
2. Tulip yellow mosaic
3. Cauliflower mosaic
4. Potato spindle mosaic.

Answer: 4. Potato spindle mosaic.

The Living World NEET Chapter Summary

Question 31. The host of TMV is:

1. Datura
2. Triticum
3. Nicotiana
4. Withania.

Answer: 3. Nicotiana

Question 32. Prions are infectious agents associated with mad cow disease. These agents are :

1. DNA
2. RNA
3. Proteins
4. All of the above.

Answer: 3. Proteins

Question 33. A virus envelope is known as :

1. Virion
2. Nucleoprotein
3. Core
4. Capsid.

Answer: 4. Capsid.

Neet Special Self Assessment Test Unit The Living World

Question 1. Match the terms in column a with suitable terms in column b. Column b.

1. 1-C,2-F,3-B,4-A,5-D,6-E,7-G
2. 1-D,2-B,3-A,4-E,5-F,6-G,7-C
3. 1-C,2-F,3-B,4-G,5-A,6-D,7-E
4. 1-C,2-F,3-B,4-E,5-D,6-A,7-G

Answer: 1. 1-C,2-F,3-B,4-A,5-D,6-E,7-G

Question 2. Match the words of column 1 with that of column 2.

1. 1-F,2-E,3-D,4-C,5-B,6-A,
2. 1-E,2-F,3-A,4-C,5-B,6-D
3. 1-E,2-F,3-A,4-B,5-C,6-D
4. 1-E,2-F,3-A,4-C,5-D,6-B

Answer: 2. 1-E,2-F,3-A,4-C,5-B,6-D

The Living World NEET Chapter Summary

Question 3. Which of the following is the correct sequence of scientific methods of gathering information?

1. Observation, formulation of hypothesis, testing of hypothesis, developing theory
2. Formulation of hypothesis, testing of hypothesis, developing theory
3. Observation, testing of hypothesis, formulation of hypothesis, developing theory
4. Developing theory, observation, formulation of hypothesis, and testing of hypothesis.

Answer: 2. Formulation of hypothesis, testing of hypothesis, developing theory.

Question 4. Which of the billowing is a card statement?

1. A hypothesis is a tentative theory
2. The hypothesis is an intelligent guess
3. The control experiment establishes the validity of the working experiment.
4. All of the above.

Answer: 4. All of the above.

Question 5. Match the items in column 1 with those in column 2 Which of the following is correct?

1. 1-C,2-D,3-D,4-A
2. 1-C,2-B,3-A,4-D
3. 1-C,2-B,3-A,4-D
4. 1-C,2-D,3-A,4-B

Answer: 4. 1-C,2-D,3-A,4-B

Question 6. Match die statements of the two columns column 1 column 2

1. 1-A,2-D,3-D,4-E
2. 1-A,2-B,3-D,4-C
3. 1-A,2-C,3-D,4-B
4. 1-A,2-B,3-B,4-D

Answer: 3. 1-A,2-C,3-D,4-B

Question 7. As a result of decomposition after death :

1. C, H, O. N. P. S. K. Ca is returned to the ecosystem
2. Get the above elements recycled
3. These elements are freed from their covalent bonds
4. All of the above.

Answer: 4. All of the above.

Question 8. A living organism is considered to be open system because it has access to:

1. Matter
2. Energy
3. Matte and energy
4. Sunlight and matter.

Answer: 3. Matte and energy

Question 9. Carbon is a principal structural element of living cells. The carbon is obtained by living systems from :

1. Glucose
2. C02 of atmosphere
3. Inorganic c02 dissolved in water
4. Any organic molecule.

Answer: 3. Inorganic c02 dissolved in water

The Living World NEET Chapter Summary

Question 10. Which of the following is the main energy storage molecule in all living systems?

1. Lipids
2. Proteins
3. Carbohydrates
4. Both 1 and 3

Answer: 3. Carbohydrates

Question 11. Membranes often contain steroids. It is a type of:

1. Lipids that contain four carbon ring
2. Lipid with a long chain
3. Formed of 15-carbon fatty acid
4. All of the above.

Answer: 1. Lipids that contain four carbon ring

Question 12. For water to become a vapor, there must be sufficient heat energy to :

1. Break its hydrogen bonds
2. Break its covalent bonds
3. Lower its specific heat
4. Raise its specific heat.

Answer: 1. Break its hydrogen bonds

Question 13. A molecule that adds hydrogen ions to a solution is known as

1. Buffer
2. Base
3. An acid
4. A hydrophobic substance.

Answer: 3. An acid

Question 14. Which of the following is not an example of an open system?

1. Cell
2. Living system
3. Thermos flask
4. Blue-green alga.

Answer: 3. Thermos flask

Question 15. Growth occurs due to :

1. Synthesis of apoplastic substances
2. Synthesis of protoplasmic substances
3. Metabolism which involves the transfer of energy
4. All of the above.

Answer: 4. All of the above.

NEET Biology Plant Kingdom An Introduction And Algae Characteristics Of Kingdom Plantae

Kingdom Plantae. This kingdom includes multicellular producers. The characteristics are:

1. Complex eukaryotic, multicellular plants adapted for photosynthesis.
2. The plant cells are rigid because of cellulose cell walls.
3. Mostly the cells are rigid and cannot contract and relax like animal cells do. Plant cells are immobile and do not exhibit the phenomenon of locomotion.
4. Plants synthesize all their organic constituents from water, C02 and inorganic forms of essential elements using light energy trapped by chlorophyll and accessory pigments. The photosynthetic region contains plastids in their cells.
5. Reproduction by both asexual and sexual methods. Gametic meiosis during sexual reproduction.
6. Life history shows the alternation of generations. Sporophyte generation produces spores which develop into gametophytic plants and produce gametes.
7. Growth is generally indefinite.
8. Structural differentiation occurs except in some lower forms.
9. Higher forms have well-defined growing points with meristems.
10. The food reserve is starch and fat.

Read and Learn More NEET Biology Notes

Plant Kingdom NEET Notes

Classification Of Plants

His kingdom includes green algae, brown algae, red algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms. The important characteristics are plastids in their cells.

Some forms have an absorptive mode of nutrition, still other forms may get modified to have a symbiotic relationship.

NEET Biology Plant Kingdom System Of Classification Of Phanerogams By Bentham And Hooker (1862-1883)

Polypetalae- Petals separate

Series Thalamiflorae-Hypogynous, stamens and pistils many, indefinite, mostly free distinct sepals free from the ovary.

Order 1. Ranales

Families-

• Ranunculaceae,
• Dilleniaceae,
• Calycanthaceae,
• Magnoliaceae,
• Anonaceae,
• Menispermaceae,
• Berberidaceae,
• Nymphaeaceae.

Order 2. Parietales

Families-

• Sarraceniaceae,
• Papaveraceae,
• Cruciferae,
• Capparidaceae,
• Resedaceae,
• Cistineae,
• Violaceae,
• Canellaceae,
• Bixineae.

Plant Kingdom NEET Study Material

Order 3. Polygalineae

Families-

• Pittosporeae,
• Tremandreae,
• Polygaleae,
• Vochysiaceae.

Order 4. Caryophyllineae

Families-

• Frankeniaceae,
• Caryophyllaceae,
• Portulcaceae,
• Tamariscineae.

Order 5. Guttiferales

Families-

• Elatineae,
• Hypericineae,
• Guttifereae,
• Temstroemiaceae,
• Dipterocarpeae,
• Chlaenaceae.

Order 6. Malvales

Families-

• Malvaceae,
• Sterculiaceae,
• Tiliaceae.

Series Disciflorac. Hypogynous, calyx consists of free or united sepals which are usually free from the ovary.

A prominent cushion-shaped disc is present below the ovary. Ovary-free or embedded in the receptacular disc. Stamens are usually definite in number.

Order 7. Geraniales

Families-

• Lineae,
• Humiriaceae,
• Malpighiaceae,
• Zygophylleae,
• Geraniaceae,
• Rutaceae,
• Simarubeae,
• Ochnaceae,
• Burseraceae,
• Meliaceae,
• Chailletiaceae.

Order 8. Olacales

Families-

• Olacineae,
• Ilicineae,
• Cyrilleae.

Order 9. Celastralcs

Families-

• Ccllastrineae,
• Stackhousieae
• Rhamneae,
• Ampelideae.

Order 10. Sapindales

Families-

• Sapindaccae,
• Sabiaccac,
• Anacardiaceae,
• Coriarieae,
• Moringcae

Plant Kingdom NEET Question Bank

Series 3. Multivulatae Terrestres

Families-

• Nepenthaceae,
• Cytinaceae,
• Anstolo-chieae.

Series 4. Micrembryea

Families-

• Piperaceae,
• Chloranthaceae,
• Myristi-cease,
• Moniaceae.

Series 5. Daphnales

Families-

• Laurineae,
• Proteaceae,
• Thymelaceae,
• Penaeaceae,
• Eleagnaceae.

Series 6. Achlamydosporeae

Families-

• Loranthaceae,
• Santalaceae,
• Balanophoreae.

Series 7. Unisexual

Families-

• Euphorbiaceae,
• Blanopseae,
• Urticaceae,
• Plantanaceae.
• Leitnerieae,
• Juglandeae,
• Myricaceae,
• Casuarineae,
• Cupuliferae.

Series 8. Ordines anomali (Anomalous Families)

Families-

• Salicaceae,
• Lacistemaceae,
• Empetraceae,
• Ceratophylleae.

Gymnospermae:

Families-

• Gnetaceae,
• Coniferae,
• Cycadaceae.
• Monocotyledones:

Series 1. Microspermae: Ovary superior tricarpellary. Seeds are very minute and many. Inner perianth leaves petaloid.

Families-

• Hydrocharidae,
• Burmanniaceae.
• Orchideae.

Series 2. Epigynae: Ovary inferior.

Families-

• Scitamineae,
• Bromellaceae,
• Heamodoraceae.
• Irideae.
• Amaryllidae,
• Taccaceae,
• Diosco-reaceae.

Series 3. Coronarieae: Ovary superior, albuminous.

Families-

• Roxburghiaceae,
• Liliaceae,
• Pontederiaceae,
• Philydraceae,
• Xyrideae,
• Mayacaceae,
• Commelinaceae,
• Rapateaceae.

Series 4. Calycineae: Ovary superior; albumen copious; perianth inconspicuous, sepaloid, stiff or herbaceous.

Families-

• Flagellarieae,
• Juncaceae,
• Palmae.

Series 5. Nudiflorae: Ovary superior perianth absent or reduced to scales.

Families-

• Pandaneae,
• Cyclanthaceae.
• Typhaccae.
• Aroideae,
• Lemnaceae.

Series 6. Apocarpae: Ovary superior, carpels separate or single.

Families-

• Triurideae,
• Alismaceae,
• Najadaceae.

Series 7. Glumaceae: Ovary single-celled, single ovule. Flowers in spikelets or heads. Perianth scale-like

Plant Kingdom NEET Question Bank

NEET Biology Plant Kingdom Stelar System

A stele is a column containing vascular tissues which is surrounded by a pericycle and separated from ground tissue by endodermis. There may be single stele (monostelic), two steles (distelic) or many steles (polystelic). Steles are of many types.

1. Protostele. It is the most primitive stele which consists of a solid core of xylem surrounded by phloem and pericycle. Pith is absent. Haplostele. It is a typical protostele which may be rounded or flattened, for Example, Selaginella chrysocaulos.

• Actinostele. The xylem is stellate (with rays of protoxylem) and surrounded by phloem, Example Lycopodium serratum.
• Plectostele. The xylem is broken into plates immersed in the phloem, for Example, Lycopodium volubile.
• Mixed Protestele. Irregular groups of xylem embedded in phloem, Example Lycopodium cemuum.
• Protostele with Mixed Pith. The central part has parenchyma and xylem. It is surrounded by phloem, for Example, Gleicheinea dichotoma.

2. Siphonostele. It is a medullated protostele or protostele with a central non-vascular pith. Leaf gaps are absent. Siphonstele is of two types:

Ectophloic Siphonostele. The central pith is surrounded successively by the xylem, phloem, pericycle and endodermis.

Amphiphloic Siphonostele. There is a central pith. The xylem is surrounded on either side by phloem, pericycle and endodermis.

Solenostele. It is similar to siphonostele but has scattered leaf gaps so that in T.S. it often appears horse-shoe shaped.

Dictyostele. It is a hollow stele with overlapping leaf gaps so that the vascular cylinder appears as a hollow network of strands called meristeles. In T.S., the dictyostele appears as a ring of meristeles, each with a protostelic structure, for example, Dryopteris.

Polycyclic Stele. A stele has two or more concentric cylinders, for Example, Matoniapectinata.

Eustele. It is a polyfascicular siphonostele which consists of several parallel vascular bundles separated by medullary rays or perforations, for Example, gymnosperms, and dicots.

Atactostele. Several vascular bundles (conjoint and collateral) occur scattered in ground tissue, for example, monocots.

Radial Bundles. Xylem and phloem occur in separate alternate bundles Example roots.

NEET Biology Plant Kingdom Algae Characteristics Of Algae

• The study of algae is called phycology and scientists working on algae are called Phycologists or Algologist.
• The algae (Linnaeus) is a collective term for all those chlorophyll-containing organisms which are thalloid, pond scums, stoneworts, and seaweeds. The thallus is non-vascular and thus has no elements for the transport of fluids.
• Algae occupy a wide range of habitats as follows :
• Terrestrial habitats. Some algae grow well in moist and well-aerated soils. They are called edaphophytes Example Fritschiella (grows on acidic soil), Vaucheria, etc.
• Aquatic habitats. Most algae grow in freshwater (waters of low salinity) or in marine water (saline water of sea having a solute concentration of 33-40 parts per thousand).

They are grouped under:

• Phytoplanktons. The aquatic algae float freely on the surface of the water body and move on the mercy of water currents (For example Chlorella, Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Cosmarium, etc.). Sometimes the colour of water changes due to the colour of plankton, called water bloom.
• The Red Sea is due to the luxuriant growth of blue-green algae-Trichodesmium erythronium over the surface of seawater.
• Benthos. The algae growing attached to the bottom of a water body are called benthos. The forms which grow attached to bottom soil or mud are called epipelagic and those which grow attached to rocks and stones are called epilithic.

Peculiar habitats

Cryophytes. Such algae grow in the polar regions on ice and snow at low temperatures Example Chlamydomonas nivalis, Ulothrixflaccida, etc. These algae produce specific colours.

For example snow (formed by Chlamydomonas nivalis), Black snow (formed by Raphidonema), Purple snow (formed by Ancylonema nordenskioldii), Blue snow (formed by Dactylococcopsis caucasica), Yellow snow (formed by Chlamydomonas flavivirus), Red-snow ball (formed by Haematococcus sp.), etc.

Thermophytes. Such algae grow in very hot water (near hot springs) with a temperature ranging between 70° to 80°C.

Epiphytes. Algae growing on the surface of other plant parts are called epiphytes ) Examples are Oedogonium, Ulothrix, Cladophora, etc.

Epizoophytes. Algae growing on the bodies of animals are called epizoophytes Example Cladophora grows on snails, and Cyanoderma (red alga) and Trichophilus (green alga) grow on the scales of sloth.

Endophytes. Algae growing within the tissue of other plants are called endophytes.

Endozoophytes. Algae grow inside the body of animals Example Chlorella grows within the tissue of Hydra and sponges.

Symbiotic algae. Some algae grow in symbiotic associations Example Lichens.

Parasitic algae. Some algae grow as parasites on other plants Example CephaleuroS Viruses (Causes Red Rust Of Tea)

Plant Kingdom NEET Mcqs

The algae exhibit great diversity in a range of thallus.

• Algae vary in size from small microscopic to large giant kelps. They have a wide range of thallus organisations. Examples of the various forms are given below:
  • Unicellular motile forms- Chlamydomonas.
  • Unicellular non-motile forms- Chlorella.
  • Palmelloid forms- Palmella, Tetraspora, etc.
  • Dendroid (tree-like) forms- Prasinocladus.
  • Non-motile colonial forms- Hydrodictyon.
  • Motile colonial forms- Volvox.
  • Unbranchedfilamentousforms- Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Oedogonium, etc.
  • Branched filamentous forms- Cladophora.
  • Heterotrichous forms- Fritschiella, Ectocarpus, etc.
  • Siphonaceous forms- Vaucheria.
  • Pseudoparenchymatous forms- Nemalion.
  • Parenchymatous forms- Ulva, Laminaria, etc.
• The cells constituting the thalli of algae are eukaryotic.
• The structure is of various kinds flagellate unicellular (Example Chlamydomonas), nonflagellate unicellular, (Example Chlorella), flagellate colony (ExampleGonium, Volvox), nonflagellate colony (Example Hydrodictyon), coenocytic (Example Caulerpa), filamentous (Example Ulothrix), parenchymatous (Example Ulva), etc.
• A colony with a fixed number of cells is called coenobium, for Example, Volvox.
• Unicellular Acetabularia (Umbrella Plant) has a holdfast (with a nucleus), a stalk and an umbrella-like cap. Caulerpa is differentiated into rhizome-like prostrate parts with rhizoids for fixation and leaf-like vertical assimilators.
• Oedogonium (an unbranched filamentous alga) contains caps on the cells which undergo division (hence cap cells).
• The pigments are chlorophylls, carotenoids, phycobilins or biloproteins and nutrition is autotrophic.
• Reserve food material is in the form of polysaccharides mostly starch in green algae. Floridian starch in red algae, laminarin and lipid or mannitol in brown algae.
• Reproduction is mostly vegetative, asexual employing aplanospores, akinetes, palmella stage, zoospores etc. Sex organs are unicellular and non-jacketed. There is no embiyo formation after the gametic union. So embryo stage is absent in algae. Sexual reproduction may be isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy.
• Isogamous type. Gametes are morphologically similar but physiologically dissimilar, for Example, Chlamydomonas albaryanum.
• Anisogamous type. Fusion takes place between morphologically and physiologically dissimilar gametes, for example, C. beanie.
• Oogamous type. Fusion of active male gamete with large passive female gamete occurs to form a zygote, for example, C. coccifera.
• Four patterns of life cycle have been recognised in algae These are-
• Haplontic or monogenetic type. The plant showing this pattern has a predominant gametophytic phase which is followed by insignificant sporophytic for the diploid phase, being represented by zygote only.
• Diplontic type. In such plants, the sporophytic or diploid phase is predominant while the gametophytic or haploid phase remains insignificant and is represented by gametes only.
• Haplodiplontic or digenetic type. The plant has both gametophytic and sporophytic phases equally well represented. However, it may be further categorised into two types- isomorphic in which plants or gametophytic and sporophytic phases are more pathologically similar, and heteromorphic in which plants of two phases are morphologically dissimilar.
• Diplohaplontic with nutrigenetic type. Plants of two phases are well developed but the diploid or sporophytic phase is extended which shows two subphases- the first being dependent on gametophyte and the second being an independent diploid subphase that arises from the first subphase.
• Algae in contrast to fungi show the evolution of sex.

According to the traditional system of classification group algae is divided into the following classes:

1. Chlorophyta,
2. Charophyta,
3. Xanthophyta,
4. Chrysophyta,
5. Bacillariophyta,
6. Pyrrophyta,
7. Phaeophyta and
8. Rhodophyta.

According to the modem classification group, algae is divided as follows

Included in Protista according to the Whittaker system of classification

Chlorophyta (Green algae)

It is characterised by the presence of chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids. About 7,000 species are known, Chloroplasts normally contain pyrenoids. Starch is reserve food material.

Chlorophyceae exhibit a wide range of thallus organisations from unicellular, colonial, multicellular, filamentous to thalloid.

They reproduce asexually by zoospores, aplanospores, hypnospores and palmella stage. The sex organs are always unicellular. The zygote generally is the only diploid structure in the life cycle, for example, Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra and Ulothrix.

Phaeophyta (Brown algae)

Characterised by presence ofchlorophyll ‘a’ and ‘c’, carotenoids and fucoxanthins (2,000 species). The cells are uninucleated and the cell walls beside the cellulose and pectic substances contain gel-like polysaccharide algin (alginic acid)and the carbohydrate fucoid in(fucinic acid).

The presence offucosan vesicles in the cells is a characteristic feature of brown algae. Reserve food material is informofmannitol andlaminarin. The members of Phaeophyceae are mostly attached to the rocks by a holdfast. Some of the larger brown algae bodies are differentiated into holdfast, stipe and lamina.

Asexual reproduction is by tetraspores and aplanospores. Sexual reproduction varies from isogamy to oogamy. There is an alternation of generations as in higher plants Example Laminaria, Macrocystis, Sargassum (gulfweed), Dictyota etc.

Plant Kingdom NEET Mcqs

Rhodophyta. (Red algae). They are characterised by the presence of chlorophyll a. phycobilins (Phycocyanin and predominant and chi d in some cases red pigment Phycoerythrin).

About 5000 species are known, the reserve food is floridean starch, galactoside and floridosides. Red algae constitute an ancient group of plants and flagellated cells are absent in their life.

Sexual reproduction is oogamous. The life cycle of many red algae shows alternation of generations For example Batrachospermum involves the alternation of a succession (3 in number) of haploid somatic generations with a transitory diploid phase as represented by a zygote. Cytologically such a life cycle is called haplodiplontic.

Asexual reproduction is by means of monospores, carpospores, bispores etc.

The striking use of red algae is Agar. It is a gelatinous bleached material which is extracted from Gelidium and Gracilaria. Agar agar is used as a culture medium for bacteria. Calcareous red algae form coral reels.

NEET Biology Plant Kingdom Chlamydomonas

It is a motile, unicellular freshwater alga characterized by a pear-shaped body, two flagella, and a cup-shaped chloroplast containing one pyrenoid.

• Two basal granules, two contractile vacuoles, one red eye spot, and one nucleus are present. The nutritional mode is autotrophic, and it stores food as starch. Vegetative reproduction is nonexistent.
• Asexual reproduction under favourable conditions occurs through zoospores, which are generated in a zoosporangium by the process of bipartition. Aplanospores, hypnospores, and palmella spores are generated under adverse conditions.
• Sexual reproduction occurs in response to adverse environments. It is isogamous, anisogamous, and oogamous.
• The gametes amalgamate in an aqueous environment, resulting in external fertilization. The zygote enters a dormant state as a zygospore.
• Under optimal conditions, it germinates to generate meiozoospores by meiosis.
• A solitary meiozoospore generates one principal plant. Parthenogenesis occurs when gametes do not fuse, resulting in the formation of a zygospore-like structure known as a Parthenospore or zygospore.
• The life cycle is haplontic, wherein the entire generation is haploid, with the zygospore being the sole representation of the diploid phase.

NEET Biology Plant Kingdom Spirogyra

It is a freshwater multicellular filamentous free-floating alga. Single filament has a large number of cylindrical cells placed end to end. A cell has a cell wall which forms mucilage in contact with water, hence the plant called ‘pond silk’.

• In the cell, there is peripheral cytoplasm (primordial utricle) spiral-shaped chloroplasts, central vacuole, and nucleus suspended by cytoplasmic strands. Numerous pyrenoids are present.
• Mode of nutrition autotrophic and reserve food in the form of starch. Spirogyra cell takes essential salts and minerals through the exposed cell surface (cell membrane and cell wall).
• The Chloroplast of Spirogyra is left-handed with a wavy or smooth margin. ‘ Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation. Asexual reproduction by akinetes and aplanospores. Sexual reproduction is by conjugation. There is scalariform or ladder-like conjugation and lateral or chain conjugation.
• It is of further of two types direct and indirect conjugation. The former takes place in monoecious as well as in dioecious filaments while the latter takes place in monoecious filaments only. The female cell has the zygote which undergoes rest in the form of a zygospore.
• In favourable conditions, it germinates to produce 4 haploid nuclei, after meiosis out of which only one is functional and three degenerate. The germ tube is produced which gives rise to one filament

Plant Kingdom NEET Mcqs

Parthenogenesis occurs when a thick-walled, unfertilized resting gamete known as a zygospore (haploid) directly generates a new plant under favourable conditions. Life in Spirogyra is haplontic, with the zygospore being the sole representation of the diploid phase.

NEET Biology Plant Kingdom Ulothrix

1. This is a green alga of class Chlorophyceae, found in both fresh waters as well as seawater.
2. The most common freshwater species is U. zonata.
3. Some of the marine species are U. implexa, U. Jlacca and U. pseudolacca.
4. It is a multicellular, unbranched, filamentous alga with a basal holdfast or rhizoidal cell.
5. All cells, except the holdfast and apical cells, are almost of the same shape and size.
6. The cells are more in breadth than that of their height.
7. Each cell contains a single chloroplast which is C-shaped, collar-shaped, girdle-shaped or ring-shaped. One (U. roida) or many (U. zonata) pyrenoids are present. The cells are uninucleated.
8. Plants reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation. Akinetes are formed in U. zonata, U. acqualis, U. diaspora and U. oscillating.
9. Asexual reproduction takes place by three types of zoospores, i.e. quadriflagellate macrozoospores (large zoospore with 4 flagella), quadriflagellate microzoospores (small zoospores with 4 flagella), and biflagellate microzoospores (small zoospores with 2 flagella).
10. Plants reproduce also by aplanospores and Palmella stage.
11. Sexual reproduction in Ulothrix is isogamous. Ulothrix is dioecious, and fusion takes place between two gametes belonging to two separate filaments. Zygospore thus formed undergoes perennation under unfavourable conditions.
12. When favourable conditions approach, it germinates undergoes meiosis and form haploid lothario. Thus life cycle is haplontic. The main plant body is haploid and only the zygote represents the diploid phase.

Economic Importance Of Algae

1. As food. Ulva, Laminaria, Porphyra, Caulerpa etc. are used as food. Chlorella contains proteins and all vitamins from A-D. It is also used as food in space travel.

1. Utilization of marine algae as human food. The marine algae are of considerable importance in food value. They are often mixed with rice and fish and served as a base for soups, and condiments and eaten alone as salads.
2. Utilization of freshwater algae as human food. Chlorella is rich in protein and carbohydrates. Spirulina plalensis is one of the richest sources of protein, containing 40- 50 per cent crude protein.
3. The mucoproteinic constituents of the cell wall are easy to digest thus making Spirulina a good item for both, human beings and animals.
4. Utilization of algae as fish food. Algae serve as primary food for fish and other small aquatic animals. In freshwater lakes and ponds, Oedogonium, Spirogyra, Microspora, Ulothrix, Cladophora, Pithophora etc., serve directly as fish food.

2. In Industry

1. Agar-agar is produced from Gracilaria and Gelidium.
2. Algin is prepared from Ascophyllum, Macrocystis and Laminaria. It is used in ice creams.
3. Carrageenan is prepared from Chondrus Crispus (Irish moss). It is used in chocolate, jelly, ice-creams, etc.
4. Iodine is prepared from Ascophyllum, Laminaria, Fucus, and Ecklonia.
5. Bromine is obtained from red algae Polysiphonia and Rhodomela.
6. Alginic acid is obtained from Macrocystis, Nereocystis, Sargassum, Fucus and Laminaria.

3. Nitrogen fixation. Nostoc, Anabaena and many other genera of Cyanophyceae fix the atmospheric nitrogen and increase the fertility of the soil.

4. Medicines,

1. The antibiotic ‘chlorellin’ is prepared from Chlorella.
2. Chara is larvicidal and helps in the eradication of malaria.
3. Alginic acid stops bleeding and is also used in the preparation of emulsions.
4. Agar-agar is used as a laxative.

Plant Kingdom NEET Syllabus

5. Research Work,

1. Chlorella is used in many experiments of photosynthesis.
2. Acetabularia is used in many genetic experiments.
3. Water Bloom. Microcystis, Anabaena and Oscillatoria form the water bloom.
4. Parasitic algae. Cephaleuros viresus is a parasitic alga and causes ‘red rust of tea.’
5. Coffea is a parasite of the coffee plants.
6. Algae and space travel. The biologists are utilizing Chlorellapyrinoidosa as a possible food source in space flight.
7. Algae as fodder. The spa y/eeds are used as fodder for cattle example Macrocystis, Fucps, Laminaria.

• Linnaeus divided flowering plants into 23 classes, using the number and position of stamens. Monandria is a class with a single stamen Example Canna, Icosandria class includes plants with 20 or more stamens.
• Plant kingdom is divided into two subkingdoms i.e. phanerogamae and cryptogamae. Cryptogamae includes non-flowering plants such as algae, fungi, lichens, mosses and ferns.
• All flowering plants bear seeds and are included in Phanerogamae. The non-flowering cryptogams are divided into divisions Thallophyta, Bryophyta and Pteridophyta. Phanerogamae are also known as spermatophyta and are divided into gymnospermae and angiospermae.
• Kingdom Plantae is a large group of organisms which are primarily eukaryotic, multicellular and photosynthetic although some of them are unicellular as well. They include red, brown and green logic. bryophytes and vascular plants or traehcophytn. The latter comprises Ptcridophyta, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
• Red algae comprise a distinct, primitive marine group based unicellular to multicellular plant or coral-like. Phycobllin pigments provide a red colour to this group.
• Brown algae group also called phaeophyta are mostly marine, max grow up to 40-bO m. Larger forms such as laminaria have lamina which is photosynthctic. stemlike stipe and holdfast which anchors them to rocks.
• Green algae also called chlorophyta are chiefly freshwater forms. These plants are of different shapes and sizes.
• Some green algae ate epiphytic or epizoic while others have symbiotic relationships with fungi Example Lichens. live photosynthetic pigments present in their green algae ate chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. They store starch and have cell walls made up of cellulose. The reproductive stage has flagellated gametes and asexual zoospores.
• Multicellular algae are evolutionarily older than land plants.
• Bry ophytes (moss plants) are small erect land plants growing densely in moist places. They have leaf-like, stem-like and root-like structures.
• These plants lack vascular tissue. Moss plants are gametophytes which develop from haploid spores. Male and female organs are called antheridia and archegonia respectively. The haploid and diploid phases alternate with each other and this is called the Alternation of generations.
• Vascular plants are diverse and dominant among land plants. Some may adapt to an aquatic mode of life secondary. The characteristic organs are root, stem and leaves which perform different functions and adapt to diverse environments.
• Ferns or pteridophytes are primitive vascular plants with variously shaped leaves. The stem of these plants may be an underground rhizome or a trunk as in tree ferns.
• The roots are of an adventitious type. Diploid sporophyte is dominant phase. Hie sporophyll produces sporangia in soil where haploid spores me produced by mciosis.
• The spores germinate to produce small ganirlnpliytc called prothallus which is heard in archegonia. Die zygote formed by the fusion of male and female gamete cells develops into a sporophytic phase, thus there is an alternation of generations.
• The plants having vascular tissue which resembles the windpipe of animals are called Trnchcophytes. Gyninospenns arc vascular plants which reproduce by forming naked seeds and water is not essential for fertilization.
• Ovules or megasporangia formed on sporophylls contain the egg cells. Pollen sacs or microsporangia produce pollen grains which produce male gametes.
• The zygote formed as a result of fertilization develops into an embryo within the ovule which becomes the seed. Seeds are naked in Gymnosperms.
• In cycas, megasporophylls are not organised in definite cones.
• Conifers (like pine) have one main axis of growth, with the trunk increasing girth as the tree increases in height. Angiosperms may be annuals, biennials or perennials and many survive for hundreds of years and grow indefinitely.
• Their size may range from 1 mm ( Wolffia) to 110 m (Eucalyptus). These angiospermic plants have definite roots, stems and leaves which may get modified to perform specific functions.
• They also get modified accordingly in the case of xerophytes, hydrophytes and mesophytes. Angiosperms are classified as monocots and dicots. The former have one cotyledon in the embryo and the latter have two cotyledons respectively.
• Monocots include cereals, bamboo, palms, bananas, lilies and orchids.
• Dicots include hard woody trees, pulses, most vegetables and fruits, many spices, beverages crops and many ornamental flowering plants.

Plant Kingdom NEET Notes

NEET Biology Plant Kingdom Quanta To Memory

• Karl. W. Von Nageli. Swiss botanists distinguished blue-green algae from algae.
• M.O.P. Lyenger is regarded as the father of Indian psychology (Algology).
• Linnaeus provided the term algae, for hepaticae and others but used it for its present meaning by A.L. de Jussieu (1789) Phycology/Algology. Branch of botany which deals with the study of alga.
• In Thallophyta. Sex organs are non-jacketed and unicellular Ectocarpus has separate haploid (n) and diploid (2n) filaments and exhibits isomorphic alternation of generations.
• Laminaria has a heteromorphic alternation of generations.
• Batrachospermum. found in freshwater is red algae but it is violet in colour.
• From Gelidium. (red algae), agar is obtained commercially from Charais submerged freshwater green alga. It has nodes, internodes and crystals of calcium carbonate.
• Porphyra. An edible form of red algae is cultivated in the shallow seas of Japan.
• Oedogonium. It has ring-like markings called cap cells. These cap cells are capable of division, sexual reproduction is oogamous. It is of two types:
• Macrandrous: Antheridia produce normal-sized filament
• Natutandious: Anlheridia produces a special dwarf male filament called nannandria.
• Phycocolloid. It is a mucopolysaccharide present in and over die walls of red and brown algae like alginic acid, brown algae, agar and carragennin in red algae.
• The Sargasso Sea is a part of the Atlantic sea and is covered by pieces of Sargassum (Gulf weed).
• Chloroplast is reticulate shaped in Morgotia, oedogonium.
• Chloroplast is star-shaped in Zygnema.
• Green algae Cephleuros causes red rust in tea and coffee.
• Carposporophyte. The post-fertilization, product produced in some algae is carpogonium is called carposporophyte.
• Carpospores on germination form a structure which resembles algal chaurasia and is called chaurasia stage Example Batrachospermum.
• Gongrosira stage of Vaucheria—Palmella stage of chlamydomonas.
• The number of caps in oedogonium cells is indicated by the number of times a cell has divided.
• Reticulate chloroplast is found in Oedogonium and pyrenoids are located on every point of cross section of bonds of chloroplasts.
• Chlamydomonas: Thrives in water richin ammonium salts. Some live in saline water and even in snow Example C. nivalis.
• Dictyosomes are present in Chlamydomonas.
• Location of contractile vacuole: Just below blepharoplasts in Chlamydomonas In Chlamydomonas. Volutin granule is reserve food present in the cytoplasm. 14 Aplanospore is produced singly.
• Hypnospores: contain haematochrome a red pigment.
• Red snow- Imperial red colour to snow by Chlamydomonas nivalis.
• Gametes of Chlamydomonas are without cell walls. Hologamy. When the whole organism acts as a gamete and fuses to form a zygote.
• Pigments entrap colour in double bonds In algal plants thalamus is Heterotrichous i.e. has different filaments. The body has prostrate branchings Example Coleochete, Stigeoclonium, Fristschiella, and Chantransia.
• Pyrenoid bodies never store oil and glycogen in algae. In algae the sex organs are naked and as a result of fertilisation the oospore or zygospore is formed but the zygote never formed.
• Alternation of generations is generally absent but occurs in Cladophora, Dictyota, and Ulva.
• Microcystis gives blue blue-green colour to the sea Trichodesmium erythrin gives a red colour to the sea.
• Carrageenan. It is a sulphated polysaccharide similar to Agar obtained from the cell walls of Gigartina and Chondrus. It is used as a thickening agent for food products, especially puddings.
• Apart from Porphyra, Chondrus (Irish Moss) is the most popular edible Red alga. Also used in pharmaceuticals including laxatives and cosmetics. Sargassum multiplies fast by fragmentation In Ulothrix, cytoplasm is peripheral.
• The zoospore of Lothario is pear-shaped and attaches itself to a solid substratum by a pointed end after swimming for some time.
• SPIROGYRA= Pond’s Silk
• Spirogyra genesis is a fixed species with holdfast and the cell just above is? gamete and above this cell represent male gamete. Zygospore has chloroplast Chlorella a green alga that is rich in proteins (50%) and is used in space research for food and C02-02 balance.
• Agar-agar is a starch-like polysaccharide which is obtained from the red algae Gelidium, which is used in medicines. Fucoxanthin is a pigment in brown algae which gives a brown colour to the algae.
• Natutandious: Anlheridia produces a special dwarf male filament called nannandria.
• Phycocolloid. It is a mucopolysaccharide present in and over die walls of red and brown algae like alginic acid, brown algae, agar and carragennin in red algae.
• The Sargasso Sea is a part of the Atlantic sea and is covered by pieces of Sargassum (Gulf weed).
• Chloroplast is reticulate shaped in Morgotia, oedogonium.
• Chloroplast is star-shaped in Zygnema.
• Green algae Cephleuros causes red rust in tea and coffee.
• Carposporophyte. The post-fertilization, product produced in some algae is carpogonium is called carposporophyte.
• Carpospore on germination forms a structure which resembles algal chaurasia and is called chaurasia stage Example Batrachospermum.
• Gongrosira stage of Vaucheria—Palmella stage of chlamydomonas.
• The number of caps in oedogonium cells is indicated by the number of times a cell has divided.
• Reticulate chloroplast is found in Oedogonium and pyrenoids are located on every point of cross section of bonds of chloroplasts.
• Chlamydomonas: Thrives in water richin ammonium salts. Some live on saline water and even in snow Example C. nivalis.
• Dictyosomes present in Chlamydomonas.
• Location of contractile vacuole: Just below blepharoplasts in Chlamydomonas In Chlamydomonas. Volutin granule is reserve food present in the cytoplasm. 14 Aplanospore is produced singly.
• Hypnospores: contain haematochrome a red pigment.
• Red snow- Imperial red colour to snow by Chlamy Domonas Nivalis.
• Gametes of Chlamydomonas are without cell walls. Hologamy. When the whole organism acts as a gamete and fuses to form a zygote.
• Pigments entrap colour in double bonds In algal plants thalamus is Heterotrichous i.e. has different filaments. The body has prostrate branchings Example Coleochete, Stigeoclonium, Fristschiella, and Chantransia.
• Pyrenoid bodies never store oil and glycogen in algae. In algae the sex organs are naked and as a result of fertilisation the oospore or zygospore is formed but the zygote never formed.
• Alternation of generations is generally absent but occurs in Cladophora, Dictyota, and Ulva.
• Microcystis gives blue green colour to the sea Trichodesmium erythrin gives a red colour to the sea. Carrageenan. It is a sulphated polysaccharide similar to Agar obtained from the cell walls of Gigartina and Chondrus.
• It is used as a thickening agent for food products, especially puddings. Apart from Porphyra, Chondrus (Irish Moss) is the most popular edible Red alga.
• Also used in pharmaceuticals including laxatives and cosmetics. Sargassum multiplies fast by fragmentation In Ulothrix, cytoplasm is peripheral. The zoospore of Lothario is pear-shaped and attaches itself to a solid substratum by a pointed end after swimming for some time.
• Spirogyra= Pond’s Silk
• Spirogyra genesis is a fixed species with a holdfast and a cell just above is. gamete and above this cell represent male gamete. Zygospore has chloroplast Chlorella a green alga that is rich in proteins (50%) and is used in space research for food and C02-02 balance.
• Agar-agar is a starch-like polysaccharide which is obtained from the red algae Gelidium, which is used in medicines. Fucoxanthin is a pigment in brown algae which gives a brown colour to the algae.

Plant Kingdom NEET Mcqs

NEET Biology Plant Kingdom Questions For Competitive Examinations

Question 1. Basal cell of ulothrix is :

1. Antheridium
2. Meristematic
3. Holdfast
4. Zoogonidium.

Answer: 3. Holdfast

Question 2. Kelps are:

1. Freshwater algae
2. Marine algae
3. Terrestrial plants
4. Amphibious plants.

Answer: 2. Marine algae

Question 3. Algae are important to human beings as they :

1. Can be turned into an important diet in future
2. Purify atmosphere
3. Can be grown in the water tank
4. None of the above.

Answer: 2. Purify atmosphere

Question 4.‘Non-motile’ gametes occur in :

1. Ulothrix
2. Spirogyra
3. Funaria
4. Selaginella.

Answer: 2. Spirogyra

Question 5. Thin-walled non-flagellate spores are :

1. Zoospores.
2. Aplanospores
3. Hypnospores
4. Zygospores.

Answer: 2. Aplanospores

Question 6. Life cycle of spirogyra/chlamydomonas is :

1. Haplobiontic/haplontic
2. Diplobiontic
3. Haplodiplobiontic
4. Diplontic.

Answer: 1. Haplobiontic/haplontic

Plant Kingdom NEET Mcqs

Question 7. Spirogyra filaments increase in length due to :

1. Basal cells
2. Division in middle cells
3. Rhizoidal cells
4. All green cells.

Answer: 4. All green cells.

Question 8. Which of the following are not seed producers?

1. Puccinia and pinus
2. Fern and funeral
3. Funaria and focus
4. Ficus and chlamydomonas

Answer: 2. Fern and funeral

Question 9. Algae attached to stones are called :

1. Monolithic
2. Epiploic
3. Epilithic
4. None of the above.

Answer: 3. Epilithic

Question 10. Algae are useful because they :

1. Are large in number
2. Purify the atmosphere
3. Are used in alcoholic fermentation
4. Are used in the study of photosynthesis.

Answer: 2. Purify the atmosphere

Question 11. People recovering from long illness are often advised to include alga spirulina in their diet because it:

1. Is rich in protein
2. Has antibiotic properties
3. Makes the food easy to digest
4. Restores the intestinal microflora.

Answer: 1. Is rich in protein

Question 12. Agar-agar is obtained from :

1. Chlorella
2. Gelidium
3. Ulothrix
4. Spirogyra.

Answer: 2. Gelidium

Question 13. Sexual reproduction in spirogyra is an advanced feature because it shows :

1. Same size of motile sex organs
2. Morphologically different sex organs
3. Different sizes of motile sex organs
4. Physiologically differentiated sex organs.

Answer: 4. Physiologically differentiated sex organs.

Question 14. Which of the following is an exclusive group of mosses?

1. Funaria, sphagnum, marchantia
2. Manchantia, porphyra, sphagnum
3. Funaria, polytrichium, sphagnum
4. Polytrichium, sphagnum, gracilaria

Answer: 3. Funaria, polytrichium, sphagnum

Plant Kingdom NEET Syllabus

Question 15. Green algae contains :

1. Chlorophyll a and b
2. Starch
3. Carotenoids
4. A11 of the above.

Answer: 4. A11 of the above.

Question 16. In lothario, meiosis takes place in :

1. Zygote
2. Holdfast
3. Zoospores
4. Cells of the filament.

Answer: 1. Zygote

Question 17. Match items in column1 and column 2

Select the correct answer from the following :

1. (1-6), (2-A), (3-c), (4-d), (:5-e)
2. (1-C), (2-b), (3-a),(4-e), (5-d)
3. (1 -B), (2-c), (3-d), (4-e), (5-a)
4. (1-c), (2-a), (3-d), (4-e), (5-b).

Answer: 4. (1-c), (2-a), (3-d), (4-e), (5-b).

Question 18. If you are asked to classify the various algae into distinct groups, which of the following characters you should choose?

1. Nature of stored food materials in the cell
2. Structural organization of thallus
3. Chemical composition of the cell wall
4. Types of pigments present in the cell.

Answer: 4. Types of pigments present in the cell.

Question 19. Group of algae in which sexual reproduction is absent:

1. Cyanophceae
2. Bacillarlophyceae
3. Chlorophyceae
4. None of these.

Answer: 1. Cyanophceae

Question 20. Consider the following statements regarding the major pigments and stored food in the different groups of algae and select the correct options given :

1. In Chlorophyceae the stored food material is starch and the major pigments are chlorophyll-a and d
2. In Phaeophyceae, laminarin is the stored food and major pigments are chlorophyll-a and b
3. In Rhodophyceae, Floridian starch is the stored food and the major pigments are chlorophyll-a, d and phycoerythrin

Choose the correct option 

1. 1 Is correct, but 2 and 3 are wrong
2. 1 And 2 are correct, but 3 is wrong
3. 1 And 3 are correct, but 2 is wrong
4. 2 Is correct, but 1 and 3 are wrong
5. 3 Is correct, but 1 and 3 are wrong.

Answer: 5. 3 Is correct, but 1 and 3 are wrong.

Question 21. Which one of the following does not differ in E. coli and Chlamydomonas?

1. Chromosomal organization
2. Cell wall
3. Cell membrane
4. Ribosomes.

Answer: 3. Cell membrane

Plant Kingdom NEET Syllabus

Question 22. Which of the following correctly represents the type of life cycle patterns from the options given?

1. Diplontic, Haplodiplontic, Haplontic
2. Haplodiplontic, Haplontic, Diplontic
3. Haplontic, Diplontic, Alopiplontic
4. Diplontic, Haplontic, Aplodipontic
5. Haplontic, Haplodiplontic, Diplontic

Answer: 4. Diplontic, Haplontic, Aplodipontic

Question 23. The monoecious plant chart shows the occurrence of:

1. Stamen and carpel of the same plant
2. Upper antheridium and lower oogonium on the same plant
3. Upper oogonium and lower antheridium on the same plant
4. Antheridiphore and archegoniophore on the same plant.

Answer: 3. Antheridiphore and archegoniophore on the same plant.

NEET Biology Nature And Scope

You and alive Being a part of the living world is a wondrous and complicated thing. Biology is the picnic that deals with living things (bios = life and the logie or ology = science of study) .

• Biologists have a tremendous variety of living things and life activities from which to choose as they select their area of study.
• In doing their work, they are like dctecto cs trying to solve a mystery. They try to be observant and alert to new ways of looking at things.
• Lamarck and Trcviranus (1801) were the first to use the term Biology. The branch of biology which deals with the study of animals is called zoology (zoion = an animal; logie or ology = science of study).
• Aristotle is regarded as the Father of Zoology. The study of plants is called Botany (butane = herb). Theophrastus (370-287 B.C.) prepared a list of 500 plants and is called the “Father of Botany”. Pure Science. In pure science research is conducted for the sake of knowledge itself.
• Applied science. It makes practical use of pure science. For example, much basic research has been conducted in recent years on the effects of radiation on living matter.
• It remained for applied science to make use of this knowledge in destroying tissue employing radiation.

Read and Learn More NEET Biology Notes

Nature And Scope Of Biology NEET Notes

Different branches of biology deal with various aspects such as morphology deals with an accurate description of the form and external structure, histology is related to the detailed study of tissue and anatomy is the study of internal structures. Cell biology is the complete study of the structural and functional aspects of a cell.

NEET Biology Nature And Scope Sub Divisions

• Anatomy-It is a branch of science which deals with the study of the internal structure of an organism as revealed by dissection.
• Arthrology- Study of joints.
• Agriology- Study of customs of primitive man.
• Apliidology- Study of flying organisms about other flying objects.
• Agronomy – The management of farms and the science of crop production is called agronomy.
• Anthropology – The science of man and mankind including his physical and mental constitution, cultural development and social conditions of present and past is called anthropology.
• Anthology- It is the study of flowers.
• Agrostology- It is the study of grasses.
• Acarology- Study of order acarina comprising ticks and mites.
• Aerology- The study of ticks and mites is called aerology.
• Aerobiology- Study of airborne organisms and structures such as spores etc. and their distribution.
• Agrobiology – It is the quantitative science of plant life and plant nutrition.
• Agrology – It is the soil science dealing with the production of crops.
• Andrology – It is die study of male reproductive organs.
• Aranrology – It is the study of spiders.
• Arboneulture – The cultivation of trees and shrubs is called arboriculture.
• Agriculture-li dc. iN with the cultivation of crops nml the improved method of farming.
• Actinobiology – Study of radiation effect on living organisms. Angiologx – Studs of Mood vessels.
• Bioinformatics – It is a branch of science concerned with the development and application of computing stem and technology to make novel observations about biological processes.
• Biotechnology- It is the controlled use of biological agents such as microorganisms or cellular components for beneficial use.
• Breeding biology – It is the art and science of changing and improving the heredity of plants and animals.
• Biochemistry- The study of the chemical aspect of living organisms is termed biochemistry.
• Batmchology- It is the study of frogs.
• Bioclimatology- The study of climatic effects on biological processes and organisms.
• Biometrology- Study of effects of atmospheric change on living organisms.
• Bionics- It is the study of solving by humans, and animals and its technical applications.
• Bacteriology- It is the study of bacteria.
• Bryology- It is the study of bryophytes.
• Computational biology – Systematic development, application and validation of computational hardware and software solutions for building simulation models of biological systems.
• Cytology- It deals with the study of the structure and functions of cells.
• Cell Biology – The study of structure and functions, reproduction, energy dynamics, transport mechanism and life history of cells is called cell biology.
• Cryobiology- It is the study of the effect of low temperature on living organisms.
• Chirology-It deals with communication systems with deaf and mute by sign language
• Chromatology- Study of pigments.
• Ctcnology- Study of acquired characteristics of organisms.
• Chorology- Biogeography.
• Chronobiology- Study of the biology of cyclic physiological phenomena.
• Cosmology- Science of structure and evolution of the universe.
• Cnidology- Study of coelenterates (Cnidarians)
• Conchology- Study of shells.
• Chondrology- Study of cartilage.
• Craniology- Study of skull.
• Cardiology- Study of heart.

Nature And Scope Of Biology NEET Study Material

• Dysteleology- It is the study of the appearance of vestigial organs due to evolution.
• Dendrology biology- It deals with the study of processes by which organisms undergo progressive and orderly changes in structure as well as physiology during their entire life cycle.
• Dermatology- Study of skin.
• Developmental morphology- It deals with the developmental aspects of plants.
• Dactylogy- Communication system for the deaf using signs made of fingers.
• Demecology – Population ecology. It is the study of the population with its environment.
• Demography- It is the study of population.
• Dendrology- It is the study of trees and shrubs also called xylology.
• Desmology- Study of structures and anatomy of ligaments.
• Evolution- It is the branch of biology which deals with the study of the descent of present-day complex living organisms (plants and animals) from the living forms of the past.
• Embryology deals with the study of the stages of an organism that occur immediately after fertilization.
• Ecology – It is the study of inter-relationships between living organisms and their environment.
• Aetiology- Study of annual behaviour and conditions of animals.
• Eugenics – It is the science dealing with the improvement of the human race through the application of the law” of heredity.
• Entomology- Study of insects.
• Exobiology- The study of the kind of life that may exist in outer space is called exobiology.
• Aetiology- It is the study of the causes of diseases.
• Exobiology- Study of adaptations with habitat.
• Ecophysiology- Physiological adaptations in response to environment.
• Epigenetics- It is the study of mechanisms by which genes and, their products bring about phenotypic expression.
• Ethnobotany- It is the relationship between primitive humans and plants.
• Ethnology- It is science dealing with different races of mankind. Economic botany- It deals with the study of various uses of plants and their products.
• Environmental management- It is the assessment of the environment, finding out the ways and means to remedy environmental problems and food conservation of biodiversity to maintain the balance in nature.
• Forensic science – Application of science for identification of various facts about blood groups, hair, poisons, narcotics, fingerprints, and DNA fingerprinting for solving civilian and criminal cases.
• Food technology – The study of the processing and preservation of food is called food technology.
• Forestry or silviculture- It deals with the development of forests and the utilization of their products.
• Gynaecology- Study of female reproductive organs.
• Gerontology- It is a branch of developmental biology which deals with the study of ageing.
• Genetics is the study of genes and concerned with heredity and variations.
• Gynaecology- Study of the genetic make-up of species or populations about habitat.
• Genetic engineering – The methods of artificial synthesis of new genes and their subsequent recombination in the genome of an organism or methods of correcting defective genes are called genetic engineering.
• Geology-It deals with the study of the earth and its life as recorded in the rocks.
• Genecology-It deals with the study of the genetic composition of a population of the environment.
• Horticulture- It deals with the study of plants cultivated in gardens and orchards.
• Hypnology- Science dealing with sleep including the one from hypnosis.
• Helminthology- Study of parasitic worms.
• Herpetology- Study of reptiles.
• Hepatology- Study of the liver.
• Haematology- Study of blood.
• Histology -> The study of the structure and chemical composition of animal and plant tissue as related to the function.
• Heredity- It is the study of the inheritance of characters from parents to offspring.
• Ichthyology- Study of fishes and amphibians.
• Internal morphology- It deals with the internal structure of plant parts and is also called anatomy.
• Ichnology- It is a branch of palaeontology which deals with fossil foot parents.
• Kalology- Study of human beauty.
• Lepidepteriology- Study of butterflies and moths.
• Leprology- It is the study of leprosy its cause and cure.
• Umnobiology -It is the study of fresh water.
• Limnology- the study of freshwater ecology study of snails.
• Lichcnology – It is the Mud of lichens.
• Molecular biology – Studs of living organisms at the tncolcculnr level.
• Morphology – It deals with the study of the form and structure of animals.
• Mammalogy – Stusly of mammals.
• Microbiology – Study of microscopic organisms.
• Malariology – Study of malaria.
• Myremecohgy- The study of ants is termed myrmecology.
• Malacology – Study of molluscs.
• Myology arcology) – Study of muscles.
• Mastology- The study of breasts including teats is
• called mastology.
  Mycology- It is the study of fungi.

Nature And Scope Of Biology NEET Question Bank

• haematology- Study of nematodes (roundworms).
• Nephrology- Study of the kidney.
• Neonatology- It is the science of the study of new bombs up to twenty-eight days in humans.
• Neurology – Study of the nervous system.
• Nidology- Study of nests of birds.
• Ornithology- Study of birds.
• Ophthalmology- Study of eyes.
• Osteology- Study of bones.
• Organocology- Study of the development of organs under embryology.
• Olericulture- It is the branch of agriculture dealing with the cultivation of vegetables.
• Odontology- Study of teeth and gums.
• Oto-larynology- Study ofear and larynx.
• Palaeontology- It is the study of the origin of plants and animals as shown by fossil records.
• Palacozoology- It is the study of animal fossils. Phenology- Study of organisms as affected by seasonal climates e.g. bird migration, opening of flowers etc.
• Physiology- The study of functions of various parts of the body is called physiology.
• Parasitology- Study of parasites.
• Protozoology- Study of unicellular organisms, i.e. protozoans.
  Parazoology- Study of sponges.
• Pathology- Nature, symptoms, causes, effects, prevention and suggestive cure of disease is called pathology.
• Plant physiology is the study of various functional aspects or life processes of plants.
• Plant taxonomy- It is the study of identification, nomenclature and classification of plants.
• Palaeobotany- It is the study of fossils of prehistoric plants.
• Plant ecology- The study of the relationship of plants with the environment is termed plant ecology.
• Plant geography- The study of the distribution of plants over the surface of the earth.
• Phycology- It is the study of algae.
• Plant pathology- It is the study of plant diseases, their causes, symptoms and methods of control.
• Pteridology- It is the study of pteridophytes.
• Palynology- It is the study of pollen grains.
• Pomology- It is the study of fruits.
• Protology- It is the study of the hindgut including the rectum and anus.
• Physiotherapy- The treatment of defects by physical remedies is called physiotherapy.
• Protistology- It is the study of protists.
• Phenology- Study of periodicity phenomenon of organisms e.g. Bird Migration.
• Pharmacology- It is the study of medicine or drug plants.
• Plant breeding – ll is the study of genetics Concerning selective crossing and reproduction between different plants.
• Plant agronomy- It is the science of soil management and the production of crops.
• Pharmacognosy- It is the scientific study of structural, physical, chemical and sensory characteristics of plants, cultivation, collection and other particulars relating to their uses.
• Pharmacology- Study of synthesis and effect of medicines on organisms.
• Phrenology- Study of mental faculties of the brain including feelings. Plant Morphology- the study of form and structure of plant organs is called morphology.
• It generally includes external morphology which refers to gross structure visible to the naked eye.
• Pedology- Paedology = Edaphology -the study of soil.
• Quantitative zoology- Study of biometric data in animals.
• Radiation biology- The study of the effects of radiation on living organisms is termed radiation biology (Actinobiology) Rhinology- Study of the nose and olfactory organs.
• Serology- Study of serum; interaction of antigens and antibodies in the blood.
• Splanchnology- Study of the visceral cavity and its organs.
• Soil Science- The study of soil involving its structure, type and dynamics is called soil science Sedimentology- Study of rocks and fossils.
• Space biology-It is the study problem of survival of living organisms in outer space.
• Herpetology (Ophiology)- Study of snakes.
• Saurology- Study of lizards.
• Sitology- Science of food, diet and nutrition.
• Stomatology is the study of the foregut.
• Speciology- Study of species.
• Sarcology is a branch of anatomy which deals with flesh parts of the body.
• Spelaeology- Study of caves and cave life.
• Teratology – It is a branch of developmental biology which deals with the study of developmental abnormalities during embryonic stages. Taxonomy deals with the principle of identification, nomenclature and classification of the animals.
• Torentology- It is the study of diseases of embryos.
• Taphonomy deals with the study of conditions conducive to the fossilization of organisms in the plant.
• Tricology- The study of hairs is called tricology.
• Trophology- The study of nutrition is called trophology.
• Toxicology- Study of narcotic effect on animals.
• Therapeutics- Study of healing.
• Tectology- It is the study of the structural organisation of animals.
• Traumatology- Study of injuries and wounds.
• Urology- Study of the excretory system.
• Virology- It is the study of viruses.
• Xenology- It is the study of hosts concerning the life history of parasites.
• Zoo-geography-It is the study of the distribution of animals in different geographic regions.
• Zoopathology- Study of diseases of animals.
• Zymology- The study of fermentation is called zymology.
• Zootechny- Science of breeding and domesticating animals.
• Zoonosology- It is the study of handicapped animals.

NEET Biology Nature And Scope Fathers In The Field

• Father of Biology: Aristotle
• Father of Botany: Theophrastus
• Father of Zoology: Aristotle
• Father of Plant Physiology: Stephan Maids
• Father of Taxonomy: Carl Linnaeus
• Father of Genetics: G.J. Mendel
• Father of Experimental Genetics: Morgan
• Father of Bryology: Johannn Hcdwig
• Father of Modem Cytology: Carl P. Swanson
• Father of Microscopy: Marcello Malpighi
• Father of Plant Anatomy: N. Grew
• Father of Histology: Francis Bichet
• Father of Mycology: Micheli
• Father of Palynology: Erdtman
• Father of Eugenics: Francis Galton
• Father of Biochemical Genetics: Archibald Garro
• Father of DNA fingerprinting: Lorentz
• Father of Ethology: Addison
• Father of Endocrinology: Lipmann
• Father of ATP cycle: Hans Selye
• Father of stress physiology: Korenchevsk
• Father of gerontology: R. Mihsra
• Father of Indian ecology: Bason George Curvier
• Father of Comparative Anatomy: Andras Vesalius
• Father of Modem Anatomy: Galen
• Father of Experimental Physiology: William Harvey
• Father of Study of circulation of Blood: Empedocles
• Father of Evolutionary ideas: K.V. Baer
• Father of Modem Embryology: Charaka
• Father of Ayurveda: L. da Vinci
• Father of Palaeontology: Hippocrates
• Father of Medicine: E.J. Butler
• Father of Indian Mycology: Robert Koch
• Father of Bacteriology: LOusis Pasteur
• Father of Microbiology: Hugo De Viruses
• Father of Mutation: Father Suarez

Nature And Scope Of Biology NEET Exam Preparation

• Father of Special Creation Theory: Edward Jenner
• Father of Immunology: Edward
• Father of Modem Genetics: Bateson
• Father of Blood groups: C. Land Steiner
• Father of genetic engineering: Paul Berg
• Father of biochemistry: Leibig
• Father of ECG: Einthoven
• Father of conditioned reflex: Pavlov
• Father of Polygenic inheritance: Kolreuter
• Father of epidemiology: John Snow
• Father of plant pathology: de Bary
• Father of Antiseptic surgery: Joseph Lister
• Father of Antibiotics: Alexander Flemming
• Father of Radiation genetics: H.J. Muller

NEET Biology Nature And Scope Scientific Method

Most biological Investigations start with an observation. Raising questions such as what, how and why of an observation and defining the problem constitute an important step in this method. To arrive at an answer to such questions, the scientist gathers as many relevant facts as possible and then formulates a hypothesis.

• A hypothesis supported by experiments or repealed observation is called a theory.
• Theories are subject to change.
• The universally accepted theory is called law or principle.
• When discoveries are made unexpectedly or by accident phenomenon is called serendipity.
• The method of science is not limited to the laboratory and often forms a part of our everyday life.
• Generalized approach in science.

Emergence of biology in ancient India

1. The people of Vedic ages (2500 BC to 650 BC) recorded about 740 plants and 250 animals.
2. In Chandogya Upanishad animals were organised into 3 categories i.e. Jivaja, Andaja and Udbhija.
3. Post-Indian literature (Susruta Samhita) (600 BC) classified substances into two sthavara (immobile-plants) and jangama (mobile-animals). This literature further also classified plants and animals.

Nature And Scope Of Biology NEET Previous Year Questions

Classification of organisms as proposed by Susruta Samhita

• As in our Vedic literature, people of that time (2500 BC to 650 BC) used to observe plants and animals and recorded 740 plants and 250 animals.
• Susruta described in detail parts of plants such as Ankura (sprout) Kanda (Bulb or stem) Puspa (flower) Mula (root) Patra (leaf) Phala (fruit).
• Susruta Samhita also mentioned the classification of animals, such as Kulacara (those herbivores who frequent the river banks, e.g. elephant, buffalo, etc.), Matsya (fish), Janghala (wild herbivorous quadrupeds, e.g. deer), Guhasaya (carnivorous quadrupeds like tiger, lion, etc.) Susruta Samhita also records some observations on snakes (both venomous and nonvenomous) and leeches.
• Six elements comprise humans according to Charahra Samhita Charahra Samhita ancient Indians mentioned that all humans and the visible world are composed of the following six elements.
• Prithvi (earth), ap (water or liquid), Tejas (fire), Vayu (air) and akasa (ether), The sixth element, the spirit or self in the individual, is equivalent to Brahma in the universe.
• Green revolution. Norman Ernst Borlaug won the Nobel Prize for the Green Revolution. It involves the use of improved wheat seed, new types of higher-yield rice and more efficient use of fertiliser and water.
• It resulted in higher yield of wheat crops. Modern plant and animal breeders can now produce new forms of life with almost any mix of characteristics by altering the genes in DNA.
• Genetically modified crops are prepared by using recombinant DNA technology. In this case by manipulation of genes new crops are produced, which can give higher yield and resistance to pests.

NEET Biology Nature And Scope Of Biology

Amniocentesis. It is the technique of the removal of amniotic fluid via a needle inserted through the maternal abdomen into the uterus and amniotic sac, to gain information about the foetus. The amniotic fluid contains cells (“amniocytes”) of the amniotic membrane and some foetal skin cells.

These cells are then cultured and stimulated to grow. After a few days, the cells are broken to release the chromosomes which are stained counted and compared with the 23 pairs of normal human chromosomes to detect missing or extra pieces.

It helps in detecting foetal abnormalities, even the test could reveal the sex of the foetus. It has resulted in female foeticides.

Bioweapons. The development of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms with increased infectivity. For example, anthrax is an acute infectious disease caused by the spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis.

Spores of B anthracis can be produced and stored in a dry form keeping them liable for decades in storage or after release. A cloud of anthrax spores, if released at a strategic location to be inhaled by the individuals under attack may act as an agent of effective weapon of bioterrorism.

Nature And Scope Of Biology NEET Notes

An attack with bioweapons using antibiotic-resistant strains would, thus, initiate the incidence and spread of communicable diseases, such as anthrax and plague, on either an endemic or epidemic scale.

NEET Biology Nature And Scope Science Of Contemporary

1. Aristotle (384-322 BC)- Greek.

• Classified animal species and arranged them in hierarchies

2. Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564).

• Belgian; “Father of Anatomy’’.  Book: De Humani Corporis Fabrica (The structure of the human body).

3. William Harvey (1578-1657).

• British; demonstrated blood circulation pumped by the heart.

Book: Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood. Also contributed to the field of reproduction and embryonic development of chicks.

4. Robert Hooke (1635-1703) British;

• First studied cell under microscope Book; Micrographia. Coined the term ‘cellulite’.

5. Antony Von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723).

• Dutch draper-turned-scientist, Observed living cells with his own invented simple microscope, e.g. protozoans, human sperm, eggs and blood corpuscles of invertebrates, Hydra, about compound eyes of insects and many other animal structures.
• First to draw a diagram of bacteria (1683) from his observations of bacterial cells under a microscope.

6. Carolus Linnaeus – (1707-1778)

• Swedish naturalist. Introduced Binomial nomen clature.

Book: Species Plantarum (1753) registers about 6000 sps. of plants.

System a Naturae (1758)- recorded about 4000 sps. of animals.

7. Georges Leopold Cuvier (1769- 1832)

• French palaeontologists Rejected the traditional ‘scala naturae’ as a unifying concept of evolution.
• First, it identified the fossils of extinct birds like reptiles and laid the foundation of palaeontology.
• First to give the concept of comparative anatomy of chordates.

8. Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)

• French naturalists; discarded the idea of the fixity of species.

Book: Philosophic Zoologique (1809)

9. Matthias SchIeiden-( 1804-1881)

• Studied plant cells and proposed cell theory- (1838) German Botanist

Nature And Scope Of Biology NEET Notes

10. Theodor Schwann-(1810-1882)

• Studied animal cells and proposed cell theory along with Schleiden – (1839) German Zoologist

11. Charles Robert Darwin-British naturalist (1809-1882).

• Book On the origin of species by natural selection: The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life-1859.
• Established that Natural Selection is the agent that brings about cliimÿcs to result in the Origin of Species by evolution.

12. Lousis Pasteur (1822 – 1895) Prench scientist.

• Discovered the concept of spontaneous origin of life Prosed fermentation is caused by living organisms Case Genu Theory of diseases, and developed the scientific basis of immunity on cholera bacteria in chicken.
• Discovered vaccine against anthrax caused by Bacillus anthracis in cattle.
• His technique of killing germs (or sterilisation) is Pasteurization.

13. Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884)

• Austrian monk; discovered (1865) the Principles of inheritance which remained unknown to the world till 1900.

14. August Wcismnnn (1834-I914)-

• German biologist; gave the theory of germplasms (1892).

NEET Biology Nature And Scope Scientists Of The Twentieth Century

• Contribution of Aristotle (384-322 B.O.). a great philosopher of Greece, belongs to an ancient time when biology as a science was poorly developed. About 90% of his writings are on scientific subjects, mostly on biological ones. A few important contributions of Aristotle are noted below:
• Aristotle classified animal species and arranged them into hierarchies. His classification was reasonable and strikingly modern.
• Formulated the Great Chain of Being or Seala Naturae —a chain of progressive change in nature. This corresponds to a sort of evolution.
• Dealt with five hundred types of animals and dissected nearly 50 of them.
• He studied the developing embryo of the chick and reported that sharks give birth to live young but do not develop a placenta like mammals. He is regarded as the founder of embryology.
• He observed the placenta in dolphins and on a placental basis classified dolphins with mammals.
• He is regarded as the “Father of Biology.” Charles Darwin (1809-1882) put forward the ‘Theory of Natural Selection which explains the mechanism of evolution.
• Andreas Vesalius is regarded as the Father of Anatomy
• Jean Baptiste Lamarck in his book ‘Philosophic Zoologique (1809)’ gave the idea of “fixity of species.”
  Leeuwenhoek (1670) observed the living cell for the first time.
• Schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory based on studies of plant and animal tissues. c1 Charles Darwin published his work in his monumental treatise “On the Origin of Species through Natural Selection or The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life.”
• Natural selection is the agent that brings about changes to result in the origin of species by evolution.
• Louis Pasteur established the germ theory of disease. Cuvier was the first to identify fossils. F.H. Janssen and Z. Janssen prepared the first bright field compound microscope.
• Faber coined the term ‘microscope.’
• Tolies developed a polarizing microscope.
• Zsigmondy invented a dark field microscope.

Nature And Scope Of Biology NEET Study Material

• Knoll and Ruska invented the electron microscope.
• Zerinke developed a phase contrast microscope.
• Caspersson invented the UV microscope.
• Gregor Johann Mendel worked for eight long years on Pisum sativum and discovered the principles of inheritance.
• Darwin’s Theory of Pangenesis, suggests that gemmules were carried through the blood from every organ of the body and collected into the gametes.
• A. Weismann after his experiments on rats proposed the
  Theory of continuity of germplasm.
• De Vries, Tschermak and Correns rediscovered Mendel’s work and formulated Mendel’s laws.
• Bateson described genes, discovered linkage and introduced the term genetics.
• Sutton along with Boveri proposed the Chromosome Theory of heredity.
• T.H. Morgan, regarded as the father of experimental genetics, described linkage, crossing over, sex linkage and prepared chromosome (linkage) maps.

NEET Biology Nature And Scope Quanta To Memory

1. The tissue culture technique is useful in the study of genetic enginnering, ageing and nutritional requirements of cells.
2. Tissue Culture. Harrison (1907) was the first to use the tissue culture technique.
3. All land animals drink water but kangaroo rat never drinks it. It obtains water from dry seeds during metabolism.
4. Teleology. It is a belief that events occur in response to specific needs.
5. Autoradiography: Radioactive isotopes are incorporated in intermediate or raw materials for studying metabolic pathways including D.N.A. R.N.A. Protein pathways. 14C was used to study the path of carbon assimilation by Calvin (1955).
6. 13N was employed by Taylor (1958) for studying chromosome implication.
7. 3-D images are obtained with the help of a scanning electron microscope and X-ray microscope. All others give 2-D images.
8. American salamander (Ambystoma triturus) has an aquatic larva called axolotl larva which can develop sex organs and produce young ones the phenomenon is called Neoteny.
9. Vital stains arc dyes which are used to stain living material c.g. Janus green to study mitochondria neutral red. methylene blue.
10. Fuelgcn stain is basic Fuchsin which is specific for D.N.A. (Fuelgen/Schiff’s reaction developed by Fuelgen and Rossenbeck 1924).
11. Acid Fuchsin is used for staining cellulose cell walls. Azure B for RNA, Sudan for lipids, Millon’s reaction for protein and iodine for starch.
12. Microsomes are new products in cell fractionation
    techniques.
13. Cell fractionation. Cell fractionation is a combination of processes by which a tissue or cell suspension is disrupted and the various cell components, the organelles and the macromolecules like proteins are separated for their subsequent biochemical analysis.
14. The tissue is dipped in 0.25 M sucrose solution and kept at a low temperature. In sucrose solution, cell organelles do not change their properties.
15. It involves the separation of cells into components so that their structure and function can be separated. It involves two steps:
    • Homogenization
    • Centrifugation.

• Ultraccntrifugc was developed by Svcdbcrg (1938). It has more than 50,000 rpm. It is used to separate constituents of cells. Fluorochromes are the dyes which produce fluore-sccncc.
• Spectrophotometry In this case solution having dissolved cellular chemicals is exposed to selected wavelengths of light and the absorption spectrum is recorded. Now, it is compared with the absorption spectra of different molecules to know the exact composition of the solution.
• The radioactive substances used are Tritium (‘ll), Carbon (UC), Phosphorus (P3Z) N15, K42 Ca4 Fcw S35 O18 Na25Cl36. N 15 and 018 are heavy isotopes. N” is used to study the replication of DNA.
• H3 was used by Taylor to study the duplication of chromosomes and locate DNA in the nucleus.
• Cl36, Na25, and Ca43 are used in the study of salt metabolism. Tritium or carbon labelled thiamine is used for synthesis of DNA and Carbon labelled uridine is used for studying the synthesis of RNA. 4C02 is used for studying the photosynthesis (Calvin cycle) of glucose in plants.
• Autoradiography is employed to study dynamic aspects of cells, their constituents and various metabolic pathways.

Nature And Scope Of Biology NEET Question Bank

• ELISA test is the first test to screen HIV cases. It tests antibodies. Western blotting techniques confirm HIV. Here antibodies are tested as per the molecular weight of antigens.
• A few other tests of HIV are 1FA (Immunii fluorescent assay), RIPA (Radio immunoprecipitation assay), B2 macroglobulin and Serum neopterin.
• Units of size used in microscopy
• 1 metre (m) = 100 centimetres (cm) = 39.4 inches
• 1 cm = 10 millimetres (mm)
• 1 mm = 10-3 m = 103 micrometres (pm)
• (Micrometres were formerly known as microns, denoted by the Greek letter, p pronounced “mew”.)
• 1pm = 10″6 m= 104= 103 nanometres (nm)
• 1nm= 10″6 m= 10-7 cm = 10 Angstroms (A)
• 1A = 10″10 m = 10’8 cm = 10’1 nm
• Angstrom was named after J. Angstrom
• (1814-1874 is spectroscopist)
• (Most biologists have now abandoned
• the use of Angstrom units, which still, however, be encountered in older books.
• Ontogeny deals with embryonic history and phylogeny deals with evolutionary history.
• The study which deals with the preservation of dead bodies in liquid by chemicals is called neurobiology.
• Cheetahs can run at the speed of 1 12.00 km/hour. Young lions, tigers, bears and wolf is called cubs and young horses are known as colts or foals.
• Proteins form 15% of body weight and are essential for growth, repair wound healing etc.
• Survival of Anopheles depends on mammalian blood from which it obtains protein required for its egg production.
• The total number of bones in man is 206. The smallest bone is the stapes (middle ear) and the longest bone is called the femur (thigh bone).
• Elephant has the sharpest memory.

NEET Biology Nature And Scope Questions From Competitive Examinations

Question 1. Resolving the limit of our eyes is

1. 1/60
2. 1/60
3. 1
4. 1″

Answer: 1. 1/60

Question 2. Which of the following sequences is correct?

1. Observation, hypothesis, problem defining, experiment
2. Observation, problem defining, hypothesis, experiment
3. Problem defining, hypothesis, observation, experiment

Answer: 2. Observation, problem defining, hypothesis, experiment

Question 3. Match the correct pair:

1. Silviculture—silkworm
2. Pisciculture—lac insect
3. Apiculture—honey bee
4. Sericulture—fish

Answer: 3. Silviculture—silkworm

Question 4. Match column i with column ii and give the correct choice :

1. 1-q,2-s,3-r,4-t
2. 1-p,p-s,3-r,4-t
3. 1-s,2-p,3-t,4-r
4. 1-s,2-t,3-p,4-r

Answer: 3. 1-s,2-p,3-t,4-r

Question 5. The most abundant organic compound on planet Earth is

1. Proteins
2. Cellulose
3. Lipids
4. Steroids

Answer: 2. Cellulose

Nature And Scope Of Biology NEET Mcqs

Question 6. The term ‘biocoenosis’ was coined by

1. Charles Darwin
2. Karl Mobius
3. Ernst Haeckel
4. E.p Odum.

Answer: 2. Karl Mobius

Question 7. Match the names of branches of biology listed under the column with the field of study given under the column; choose the answer which gives the correct combination of the alphabets of the two columns :

1. 1-r,2-q,3-s,4-p
2. 1-s,2-r,c-q,d-p
3. 1-q,2-r,3-s,4-p
4. 1-s,2-q,c-r,4-p

Answer: 3. 1-q,2-r,3-s,4-p

Question 8. The electron microscope was invented by :

1. Robert Hooke
2. Louis Pasteur
3. Knoll and Ruska
4. Schwann and schlcidcn

Answer: 2. Louis Pasteur

Question 9. The branch of biology dealing with the process of improvement of the human race by selective breeding is known as

1. Euthenics
2. Eugenics
3. Eupthenics
4. Obstetrics

Answer: 2. Eupthenics

Question 10. Biosystematics aims at:

1. Identification and arrangement of organisms based on their cytological characteristics
2. The classification of organisms based on broad morphological characters
3. Delimiting various taxa of organisms and establishing their relationship
4. The classification of organisms based on their evolutionary history and establishing their phylogeny on the totality of various parameters from all fields of studies.

Answer: 4. The classification of organisms based on their evolutionary history and establishing their phylogeny on the totality of various parameters from all fields of studies.

Question 11. Aristotle is connected with :

1. Catastrophism
2. Scala Naturae
3. Biogenetic law
4. Parallelism

Answer: 2. Scala Naturae

Question 12. Amniocentesis is employed for the diagnosis of ;

1. Brain disorders
2. Hereditary defects
3. Spina bifida
4. Coronary disorders.

Answer: 2. Hereditary defects

Nature And Scope Of Biology NEET Exam Preparation

Question 13. Which one of the following is correctly matched regarding an institute and its location?

1. National Institute of virology-Pune
2. National institute of communicable diseases- Lucknow.
3. Central drug research institute-Kasauli
4. National Institute of nutrition-Mumbai

Answer: 1. National Institute of virology-Pune

Question 14. The study of the kind of life in outer space is known as ;

1. Exobiology
2. Ecology
3. Evolution
4. Anthropology
5. Entomology

Answer: 1. Exobiology

Question 15. Amniocentesis is used to determine;

1. Heart disease
2. Brain disease
3. Hereditary disease of the embryo
4. All of above
5. None of these.

Answer: 3. Hereditary disease of the embryo

Question 16. The name of norman borlaug is associated with :

1. Green revolution
2. Yellow revolution
3. White revolution
4. Blue revolution.

Answer: 1. Green revolution

Question 17. The branch of biology dealing with the study of rudimentary organs is :

1. Dysicliology
2. Dermatology
3. Etiology
4. Chirology

Answer: 1. Dysicliology

Question 18. Is hirudin is :

1. A protein produced by Hordeum vulgar which is rich in lysine
2. A toxic molecule isolated from Gossypium which reduced human fertility
3. A protein produced from transgenic brassica napus, which prevents blood clotting
4. An antibiotic produced by a genetically engineered bacterium. Escherichia coli

Answer: 3. A protein produced from transgenic brassica napus, which prevents blood clotting

Question 19. When children play barefooted in pools of dirty water and flood water, they may suffer from diseases like :

1. Leptospirosis and bilharzia
2. Malaria, amoebic dysentery and leptospirosis bilharzia, infective hepatitis and diarrhoea
3. Guinea worm infection, elephantiasis and amoebic dysentery

Answer: 3. Malaria, amoebic dysentery and leptospirosis bilharzia, infective hepatitis and diarrhoea

Question 20. The biological organisation starts with :

1. Cellular level
2. Organismic level
3. Atomic-level
4. Submicroscopic molecular level.

Answer: 4. Submicroscopic molecular level.

Question 21. Living organisms can be unexceptionally distinguished from non-living things based on their ability for:

1. Interaction with the environment and progressive evolution
2. Reproduction
3. Growth and movement
4. Responsiveness to touch.

Answer: 2. Reproduction

Question 22. In September 2001, which of the following was used as a bioweapon agent in America?

1. Poliovirus
2. Aids virus
3. Clostridium botulinum
4. Bacillus anthracis

Answer: 4. Bacillus anthracis

Question 23. T bioweapon agents are very convenient for use because they ;

1. Cause far more casualties than chemical or conventional weapons
2. Low-cost weapons
3. Are invisible
4. All of the above.

Answer: 4. All of the above.

Nature And Scope Of Biology NEET Previous Year Questions

Question 24. Identify the correct set from the following.

1. The application of mathematics of biology of biometry
2. The study of genetics that deals with the systematic treatment of genetic disorders is euphenics
3. The branch of biochemistry concerned with the study of transformation and use of energy of living cells of organisms is biotechnology
4. The study deals with the application of statistical methods for computation and analysis of biological data in bioinformatics.

Choose the correct answer

1. 1 and 3
2. 1 and 3
3. 2 and 3
4. 1 and 4

Answer: 4. 1 and 4

Question 25. The study of the growth of a part of the body relative to that of other parts or the whole body is termed.

1. Allopatric
2. Allometry
3. Aliogamy
4. Allelopathy.

Answer: 2. Allometry

Question 26. The test which is misused for sex identification for an unborn baby is:

1. Angiogram
2. Clotting test
3. Amniocentesis
4. Erythroblastosis.

Answer: 3. Amniocentesis

Question 27. Edaphology is the study of :

1. Snakes
2. Elephants
3. Amphibians
4. None of these.

Answer: 4. None of these.

Question 28. The study of the ecology of the population is called :

1. Ecotype
2. Autecology
3. Dermatology
4. Synecology.

Answer: 3. Demecology